Elective Course 4 of People's Education Edition, Comments on Chinese and Foreign Historical Figures, covers politicians, thinkers, revolutionaries, scientists and many other figures, which challenges history teachers: teachers should not only master the life of politicians, but also understand the thoughts of thinkers and the background of revolutionaries, and what is more painful is to have a general understanding of scientists' scientific achievements. If the narratives of politicians, thinkers and revolutionaries still have a strong historical color, how to grasp the narratives of scientists? Newton's and Einstein's scientific achievements are so hard to understand that teachers of non-discipline majors can only draw a tiger to make trouble-history teachers of liberal arts majors are a little reluctant to face these contents, so how should such teaching contents be chosen? Do you pretend you don't understand, exert yourself evenly, or do you choose scientifically and get familiar with it gradually? Taking Newton, the father of modern science, as an example, this paper talks about the choice of teaching content, hoping to inspire teachers.
First, the basic criteria for choosing teaching content
Commenting on scientific figures from the perspective of history discipline should be the basic standard for the selection of history classroom teaching in senior high schools. As a middle school history teacher, we should have an accurate position: we are not all-rounders, so it is difficult to understand Newton's three laws in an easy-to-understand way; Nor can it accurately explain Einstein's theory of relativity. But we can let students know the role of scientists in the process of historical development from the perspective of historical figures' comments, and learn historical wisdom and life experience from their good words and deeds.
The teaching requirements of Subject Teaching Guidance for Senior High Schools in Zhejiang Province for Newton, the father of modern science, are to understand Newton's growth process, briefly describe his major scientific achievements, such as establishing the theoretical system of classical physics and inventing reflecting telescope, and feel Newton's rigorous scientific attitude and diligent exploration spirit.
However, in the teaching process, there are generally two kinds of deviations in content selection: one is to vividly tell Newton's growth process with great strength. For high school students, Newton's life story is almost familiar. Such a waste of pen and ink, how to tap the cognitive thinking of high school students? Second, teachers often pay attention to the interpretation of scientific achievements. One lesson focuses on Newton's achievements in mathematics, optics and mechanics. Some teachers even try to make students understand the law of universal gravitation: there is mutual attraction between any two particles, and its size is directly proportional to the product of their mass and inversely proportional to the square of their distance. I hope students will remember the formula of the law of universal gravitation.
F=GM 1 M2/R2
It is true that when we study the deeds of scientists, we must understand their achievements, but if we take it as the most basic teaching content, it will dilute the disciplinary function of history and set an insurmountable obstacle for teachers-can teachers explain the above principles clearly? Can students understand? If teachers are more confused and students are more afraid when listening, is it good for improving teaching efficiency?
Therefore, without proper teaching content, all teaching will lose its meaning. Throughout the history of human society, there are many fields and categories. If a history teacher wants to position himself as a generalist and tell his students all the achievements of mathematicians, scientists and even doctors of medicine and agronomists in human history, it is impossible and unnecessary.
As long as we start from the characteristics of history discipline, tap the educational function of history discipline, select appropriate teaching content and screen teaching content, the ideal teaching effect can also be achieved. Isn't it a good teaching design to choose appropriate "blank space" and "weak points" in teaching content to leave room for students interested in scientific achievement? Of course, the choice of teaching content is inseparable from teachers' vision, academic support and their understanding and grasp of the subject. Only with these qualities can teachers do more effectively in the process of teaching choice.
Second, the basic idea of choosing teaching content
Professor Sheng pointed out in the book Modern Instructional Design: "The effectiveness of teaching should include three aspects: First, the effect of teaching is usually judged by the performance level of students. The second is teaching efficiency, which is judged by comparing with the effect of students' study time and teaching cost. The third is the attraction of teaching, which is generally judged by students' tendency to continue learning, reflecting students' attitudes and emotions in learning willingness, motivation and perseverance. "
The choice of teaching content should first be based on improving the attractiveness of teaching. We can imagine: how can teaching be attractive when teachers tell complicated and profound contents and present profound knowledge in the teaching process? If the thinking characteristics of subjects are highlighted in teaching, students can experience the promotion of scientific and technological development to human civilization in the process of learning these scientists; Understanding scientists' spirit of being good at thinking, practicing, defying difficulties and advancing despite difficulties, and realizing that productivity is the scientific proposition of "the foundation of all human history", the attraction of teaching will be greatly improved. When talking about Newton's content, we must give full play to our own subject expertise, avoid complicated and abstruse content, and focus on breaking through the following teaching content.
1 Mining the Determinants of Social Environment
The development of science and technology is generally restricted by the background of the times, society and production needs. Although Newton is known as "the pioneer of modern science" and "the founder of modern scientific system", any achievement he has made cannot be separated from his social environment. This part of the content should be historical knowledge and the content that reflects teachers' academic accomplishment, and should be broken through emphatically. Because this part of the content is rarely mentioned in the textbook, teachers should enrich and improve it, extend it appropriately, and stimulate the connection between old and new knowledge of students.
Newton lived from 1643 to 1727. Students with a little knowledge of history should see that the British bourgeois revolution broke out when he was born, and the French Enlightenment surged before and after his death. It can be said that Newton put forward a new understanding of nature under the impetus of the Renaissance and the Religious Reform. At the same time, his scientific thought influenced the Enlightenment, and the science and democracy advocated by the Enlightenment thinkers emphasized science and rationality, all of which permeated Newton's scientific thought. As alexander pope, an English poet during the Enlightenment, said, "Nature and its laws are hidden in darkness. God said, let Newton be born and everything will become bright. " Newton's scientific discovery is rooted in the social background of great social turmoil and great changes in Europe at the beginning of 17 ~ 18 century, and in the historical trend of great development of thought and science.
First of all, the rapid development of capitalist economy at that time, especially the great geographical discovery and the development of British domestic industry and commerce, made people devote more interest and energy to astronomy, tidal laws, mechanical principles and fluid mechanics. Such an era environment will inevitably affect Newton's scientific research, and his reflective telescope was invented to eliminate the chromatic aberration of refractive telescope.
Secondly, the emancipation of the mind and the enlightenment of ideas brought by the Renaissance and the Religious Reform have brought unprecedented prosperity of European spiritual culture, and natural science has been reborn and developed vigorously. Medieval theology believed that God created and dominated everything in the world. All animals, plants and species have not changed since the day God created them. The emerging bourgeoisie advocates hard work, emphasizes freedom and equality, and does not stick to the rules. It can be said that after the baptism of the Renaissance and the Reformation, science was liberated from the shackles of theology and the Vatican. It is in this era environment that Newton formed respect for knowledge, no superstition of authority, and the courage to critically accept and put forward new ideas and concepts.
Third, extraordinary times have created an extraordinary group of scientists. With the great development of science, many outstanding scientists emerged, which enabled Newton to draw rich nutrients from other scientists. Newton himself said that his achievement was because he stood on the shoulders of a "giant". In college, Newton had learned about the research results of Copernicus, Galileo and Kepler in astronomy, and he believed Kepler's theory that the planets run in a certain orbit. On this basis, Newton further thought, why do planets move like this? Newton finally came to the theorem of universal gravitation. Newton's "induction-deduction" method is also based on the research of Galileo, Bacon and other scientists. He is the first person to make full use of this method. So Newton regarded his predecessors as his friends, but he didn't blindly believe them, but kept developing and innovating, so Newton said, "My better friend is truth."
It is necessary to sort out this kind of knowledge, so that students can construct the connection between elective courses and compulsory courses, tap the profound philosophy of history and improve their cognitive ability.
2. Highlight the historical contribution of scientific achievements.
As an outstanding scientist, Newton made great achievements in science. Engels once summed it up in The Situation in Britain-18th Century:
Newton founded scientific astronomy because he invented the law of universal gravitation, scientific optics because he decomposed light, scientific mathematics because he founded binomial theorem and infinite theory, and scientific mechanics because he knew the essence of force.
The following table lists its basic achievements:
The above table clearly shows Newton's major scientific achievements, and liberal arts students have basically mastered them. However, in order to highlight Newton's scientific achievements, some teachers spend a lot of energy on the explanation of the concept of gravity and the principles of the three laws, which not only brings a heavy knowledge burden to history teachers' teaching, but also puts a complex and profound yoke on students' learning, and students are too deep to go in and think. The author believes that it is our original intention to interpret Newton's scientific success from a historical perspective, otherwise, we will fall into a learning blind spot.
(1) Explain the historical position of mathematical principles of natural philosophy.
The Mathematical Principles of Natural Philosophy published in 1687 is Newton's masterpiece. So far, this book has been published in more than 100 edition, and its translation covers almost every language in the world. British scientist Ya Wolff described this in his book 16, 17 Century History of Science, Technology and Philosophy:
Newton's principles are regarded as the greatest works in the history of science. There is no doubt that no other masterpiece can compare with this principle in terms of its influence on present and future generations. For more than 200 years, it has been the basis of all astronomical and cosmological thoughts ... No wonder the extraordinary success of Newtonian mechanics has left a deep impression on workers in different fields such as psychology, economics and sociology, so that they try to use mechanics or quasi-mechanics as models when solving various problems.
It can be seen that the historical position of the book Mathematical Principles of Natural Philosophy lies in that it not only revolutionized the world's understanding of the universe, but also had a revolutionary impact on science. More importantly, it also opened the door to the industrial revolution. The key to learning history is to help students build the relationship between knowledge. Because it is difficult for students to combine the industrial revolution with Newton's scientific achievements, if we teach this course, we can make it clear that Newton not only solved the ancient problems that plagued mankind, such as how tides came into being and how comets crossed the sky, but also introduced new ideas, which laid the foundation for the study of mechanics and dynamics. In the next century, the evolution of human civilization has entered a new track. It was Newton's scientific achievements that brought mankind from darkness, from the whimsy of nature, to the era of science and technology and to the glory of the industrial revolution. This interpretation with historical flavor and subject feelings can stimulate students' enthusiasm for learning.
(2) Make clear the historical value of Newton's scientific thought.
High school students are always confused when they study the Renaissance, the Reformation and the Enlightenment. As an enlightenment thought, what progress did the Enlightenment make compared with the Renaissance? Why is rationalism the product of the development of humanism to a new stage? How to understand Einstein's evaluation of Newton: "We can only understand him if we regard his life as a scene on the stage of fighting for eternal truth". If we can guide students to analyze the historical value of Newton's scientific achievements in teaching, it will be of great help to understand these problems.
The Enlightenment is characterized by breaking superstition and mysticism, advocating science (natural philosophy or philosophy for short), and liberating people from fear, ignorance and various ideological and spiritual shackles. Science and reason are two major ideological themes of the Enlightenment, which spread widely and were deeply rooted in people's hearts. Scientific rationality and positivism became the spiritual temperament and even social fashion of that era, and this period was therefore called the "rational era". Newton extended the motion of objects on the earth and the motion of celestial bodies to the same theory, and formed a classical mechanical system based on experiments and expressed mathematically. This system gives great enlightenment to mankind from two aspects:
First, "the development of everything in the universe is regular, and it is constantly developing from low level to high level ... This natural law is completely understandable ... Human society also has eternal laws governing its development and progress." It is based on this understanding that Voltaire proposed: "If all nature and all planets obey eternal laws, and there is a small animal that is five feet high, it can be completely ignored. After mastering Newton's scientific thought, it is not difficult for us to understand Voltaire's thought.
Secondly, "people don't need God in the process of understanding the laws of nature, but only need rationality ... As long as people use rationalism like natural science, they can also reveal the laws of the development and progress of human society." This rationalism not only shows its power in science, but also reshapes people's way of thinking, as isaiah berlin once said: "The influence of Newton's thought is enormous; Whether we understand them correctly or not, the whole program of the Enlightenment, especially France, is consciously based on Newton's principles and methods. At the same time, he gained confidence from his amazing achievements and had a far-reaching impact. " It can be seen that Newton's outstanding contributions in physics, mathematics, astronomy and other fields have established the scientific system and scientific research thinking method of related disciplines, and set a model for psychology, economics and sociology. /kloc-In the 9th century, Darwin founded the theory of biological evolution. He put forward evolutionism viewpoints such as "survival of the fittest" and "survival of the fittest", further explained that "creator" means that God has no need to exist at all, and introduced concepts such as "development" and "change" into the scientific field, which made human thoughts leap forward. In order to criticize religion, politics and metaphysics, the French Enlightenment transplanted Newton's method into the field of humanities and society. Inspired by Newton's achievements, thinkers of the Enlightenment deciphered the process of the development law of human society with the weapon provided by Newton-rationality. Therefore, science and the Enlightenment can be said to go hand in hand: the Enlightenment accelerated the birth and prosperity of modern science, and science strengthened the momentum and strength of the Enlightenment, making it more deeply rooted in people's hearts and glowing with lasting vitality. Some scholars pointed out: "Science promoted the French Enlightenment to be permeated with the optimistic spirit of advocating rationality and believing in social progress. Outstanding scientific achievements and their wide application have promoted the progress of production technology. This convinced enlightenment thinkers that as long as people turn from obeying God to facing and conquering nature, they can be liberated from ignorance and superstition, gain great power and promote social progress. The essence of science is enlightenment, and enlightenment must rely on science. Science can reveal the' light of nature', ignite the' light of reason' and guide people from darkness to light. "
In order for students to understand history and form opinions, we must first form rational learning thinking and consciousness. Mining and processing the above textbooks will help students to deeply understand the connotation and charm of the history discipline and truly grasp the characteristics of the times of historical figures.
3. Show the personality charm of scientific figures
The evaluation of historical figures is most afraid of stereotyped introduction and flawless praise. As the father of modern science, Newton's life stories, such as the story of apples, the story of eating chickens and the cooking of eggs and watches, have all become allusions. How to break through these cognitive rules and regulations in high school teaching? How to highlight the personality charm of scientists? This is also a breakthrough in the teaching of this course.
(1) The key to scientific achievements lies in methods.
As an outstanding scientist, Newton's diligence and assiduousness are beyond doubt, but his most outstanding place should be his guidance on methods. It can be said that it was the scientific method that led to his outstanding performance and laid the foundation for his scientific achievements. Einstein wrote in 1927 to commemorate the 200th anniversary of Newton's death:
I think it is necessary to commemorate this outstanding genius at such a moment. Before and after this, no one decided the direction of western thought, research and practice like him. He is not only the inventor of some key methods, but also unique in using the empirical materials at that time. At the same time, he has amazing creativity in the detailed proof methods of history and physics. For these reasons, he deserves our deepest respect.
In the Middle Ages, the research method of drawing conclusions through reasoning was very popular. By the Renaissance, Italian scientist Galileo made his own telescope to observe celestial bodies and found many celestial bodies that were invisible to the naked eye before, which made great contributions to the development of science. He paid attention to experiment and practice, founded the research method of combining experiment and demonstration, and was praised as the founder of modern experimental science. Bacon put forward the scientific research method of materialism. Newton engaged in scientific research on the basis of predecessors' methods. Newton's research method was summarized as "inductive-deductive method" by later generations. When he draws a conclusion in the experiment, he must prove the correctness of his conclusion in further experiments. This is a modern scientific research method, and Newton was the first person to make full use of it. It is precisely because Newton combined this rigorous scientific attitude with diligent exploration spirit that he made great discoveries in the history of science and laid the foundation for the development of modern science.
(2) The evaluation of scientific figures focuses on truth.
Evaluation of historical figures, one is afraid of the overall situation, and the other is afraid of Gao Daquan. If we put Confucius on the altar of "sage", it will weaken the brilliance of his humanity. To make students form rational thinking, we should get rid of this mechanical understanding and let students fully understand Newton.
First of all, he is excellent but not perfect. In Newton's time, the great shadow of medieval theology has not faded, and scientists will have limitations. At the same time, we should also see that the world is full of mystery and people's understanding of it is relative. As the founder of modern science, Newton's performance in his later years was surprising. He turned to the fascination and study of religion and mysterious thoughts, and wrote a large number of biblical annotations and other theological papers. He even thinks that "God" is an eternal, infinite and absolutely perfect master. He tried his best to find the "argument" for the existence of the so-called "God" in celestial mechanics, and firmly believed that the orderly rotation of planets around the sun was due to the first driving force of "God". In order to "refute" the "fallacy" of materialists and atheists, he also tried to show various arguments of "the existence of God". He once said, "God rules all things, and we are his servants, so we fear and worship him." A founder of modern science, an admirer of "God", the "paradox" that we can't coexist in our eyes, so ridiculously exists in Newton's thought. So, will we abandon Newton's scientific achievements because of this? Will Newton be belittled? Obviously, the real excavation of human nature just shows the complexity of human beings and embodies the characteristics of historical figures of the times. It will not only affect the overall evaluation of Newton, but also make students realize that outstanding historical figures are also "people", so as to better understand the charm of history learning.
Secondly, greatness is not eternal. Newton's three laws of mechanical motion of objects and the law of universal gravitation constitute a unified system, which summarizes the motion of objects in the sky and on the ground and becomes the symbol of the formation of modern science. This is the first theoretical generalization and synthesis of natural laws in the history of human cognition. However, Newton's scientific achievements are not eternal. After Einstein put forward the special theory of relativity, he changed the space-time view of Newtonian mechanics, revealed the equivalence of matter and energy, and promoted another great revolution in the field of modern physics. Of course, we should also make it clear to students that the emergence of the theory of relativity did not weaken the brilliance of Newtonian mechanics, because Einstein only denied Newton's absolute view of time and space, and essentially revised the view of time and space established by narrow experience. But it also developed Newtonian mechanics, which is only a special case of low-speed relativistic mechanics. The concept created by Newton still guides our physics thoughts, and Newton's three laws of motion are still the basis of the whole mechanics. Let's pay tribute to Newton in Russell's words:
I believe that outstanding individuals have made great contributions to the creation of history. I think that if 100 of the best scientists died young in the 7th century, the life of ordinary people in the whole industrial society would be completely different from the present situation. "In the17th century, especially Galileo, Descartes, Leibniz and Newton, their contributions to our understanding of nature are more outstanding and amazing than anyone except the ancient Greeks. Indeed, some concepts used in mathematical physics at that time did not fully have the validity given to them at that time. In fact, the latest progress in physics often requires new concepts completely different from those in17th century. In fact, their concept is not an introduction to all the mysteries of nature, but an introduction to many mysteries of nature.
The choice of teaching content is the key link to realize the effectiveness of teaching, and it is also a major test for teachers' teaching literacy. As an experienced history teacher, students should be guided to form a subject understanding based on textbook knowledge. To achieve this teaching goal, teachers need to reorganize the teaching content scientifically, excavate the teaching connotation reasonably and select the historical details deeply. Only in this way can we better cultivate students' interest in learning, help them enter the depths of history and form historical feelings and abilities.