Appearance and shape (such as glaciers, river valleys, karst, loess gullies, coastal areas, etc.). ) can also provide tourists with a more comprehensive and intuitive overview of tourist areas. Audio map paper is a common carrier of geographic information. Although the load on the map has been considerable through the rational design of the map and the scientific use of colors, the amount of geographic information that needs to be expressed on the map is greater, and it is often limited by the width and scale, and only part of the information can be selectively expressed. Mainly static geographical landscape and its temporal and spatial distribution characteristics. Too much emphasis on increasing the load on the map sometimes backfires. One of the effective ways to increase the map information capacity and improve the application effect is to change the single carrier form of paper. Therefore, the magnetic tape with high-density information recording and additional devices are combined with the conventional map to form an "audio map". The audio graph is proportional to human audio and video. According to the research of psychophysics, among human sensory organs, vision is the fastest way to transmit information, followed by hearing. If a certain proportion of vision and hearing are mixed, the temporary neural connection established on the cerebral cortex will be supplemented, revised and perfected, and finally a complete concept of objects and images will be formed. An audio map consists of a public map, a controller, a retrieval board and accessories for recorders and players. The controller is an electronic controller. The search pad is made of nylon, with many squares printed on the surface that can be used for map positioning, and there are search grids and extraction electrodes made of conductive resin mixed with offset printing in the interlayer; The recorder/player accessory has the functions of storage, addressing and control, and is controlled by the signal output by the retrieval board. When using an audio map, as long as the map is placed on the retrieval pad and positioned according to the original positioning requirements, when the director points to a ground symbol on the map, the retrieval signal output by the director enters the attachment of the recorder through the extraction electrode through the grid in the interlayer of the retrieval pad, and the corresponding explanation content is retrieved from the tape. In this way, while observing a ground symbol on the map, you can also hear the explanation about the ground objects. As time goes by, you look at a symbol of a ground object visually, but your hearing is constantly receiving new content information. At this time, people are in a state of highly concentrated thinking, which is conducive to improving the reading and application effect of maps. Digital maps are printed on paper or other materials. It can be read and measured directly. Digital map is a special kind of "map", which digitally stores all the information that needs to be represented on the map in the computer without displaying graphics, and then carries out purposeful processing and analysis when using it, and then expresses it with graphics and other forms (profile, hydrological map, etc.). ) or directly provide answer data. Its data comes from various remote sensing images, general maps and thematic maps. All these information can be converted into various data by special programs, classified, combined, calculated and processed according to users' requirements, and then new maps with different scale series can be formed. Digital map is used more and more widely because of its fast, accurate, rich information and novel and diverse patterns. For example, a traffic map in the form of a digital map can display the graphics of the required area in time, and adjust the scale to a degree sufficient to distinguish them. Provide ever-changing detailed road information. Another example is the Swiss National Atlas, which can also store all its information on a special 46 floppy disk for readers to call and read on a microcomputer. Braille maps are dedicated to the blind, and features are displayed with bumps of the same size and different combinations. This is made by many countries, such as the small-scale map of Poland. Large-scale maps, such as the White House tour map compiled by the United States, are also called luminous maps and fluorescent maps. They are printed on special fluorescent paper with special color ink and ordinary printing methods, and the map can be continuously irradiated with invisible ultraviolet rays in the dark environment, so that the content can be clearly read. There are many kinds of fluorescent maps, including fluorescent topographic maps and fluorescent charts. Widely used in night military operations or underground engineering. Non-paper maps include plastics (plastic sheets, plastic sheets, pearlescent plastic sheets, etc.). ), silk, polyester and cotton. These maps are generally folding-resistant, wear-resistant, light and not afraid of water, among which polyester-cotton maps are good materials for teaching wall charts, which are more and more loved and adopted by teachers. The transparent polyester plastic sheet map in the plastic map can often be used as the second base map of the atlas (for example, the plastic sheet base map of the administrative area can be overlaid on various thematic maps for professional analysis) or as a combination of thematic maps (for example, the point population map made of plastic sheets can be overlaid on other population maps for analysis). The map is a "big family". If the map is introduced according to its function, there are many new varieties with the development of national economy and the progress of science and technology. All these thematic maps, together with our common general maps, thematic maps and image maps, have great application potential in all walks of life, especially in science, culture and education, and are playing an increasingly important role. Pei Xiu, an ancient cartographer in China, was an outstanding cartographer and geographer in ancient China and an innovator of the map system. Based on his own research, he creatively put forward "Six-body Cartography", which is of epoch-making significance in the map history of China and occupies an important position in the map history of the world. Some people compare Pei Xiu of China and Ptolemy, a European cartographer (about 99- 168 AD) to two superstars in the history of ancient maps. Pei Xiu was born in Ji Yan and Wenxi (now wenxi county, Shaanxi). Born in 223 AD (the fourth year of Huang Chu, Wei Wendi), he died in 27 1 year (the seventh year of Emperor Wu of Jin Dynasty and Qin Shihuang) at the age of 48. His grandfather Pei Mao was an official of the Han Dynasty, and his father Pei Qian was an official of the Wei State. Pei Xiu was smart and studious when he was young. In the biography of Jin Ping Mei, he said that he was "knowledgeable and learned everything by heart".
2. Basic knowledge of maps
1. What is a map? A map is a spatial model that uses images and symbols to represent the geographical distribution, combination and relationship of drawing objects (phenomena) and their changes with time according to certain mathematical laws and comprehensive laws. It is the carrier of geographic information and the channel of information transmission.
2. Cartography and its theoretical basis Cartography belongs to a discipline in earth science. It is mainly a science that studies the essence (nature, content and expression method) of maps, and the development of cartographic theory and technical methods.
Its task is to obtain various types of high-speed and high-quality maps. It is the science of making maps.
Map is a special form for human beings to know the objective world and reflect nature. Map making is not a purely technical problem, but a reflection of human's ability and level of understanding objective things.
3. Cartography and its components: an introduction to maps: studying the development law and characteristics of maps, as well as the nature, classification, use, content and expression methods of maps. Map projection: study the functional relationship between the plane rectangular coordinates (or polar coordinates) of each point on the map and the geographical coordinates (latitude and longitude coordinates) of the corresponding point on the ellipsoid of the earth, and study the theory, nature, deformation law, calculation method, discrimination and selection of projection, as well as the transformation between different projections in map compilation.
Cartography: the study of the theory, technical methods and procedures of cartographic data. Cartography: the study of the theory and technology of drawing published original drawings suitable for printing requirements.
Map decoration: study the expression forms of map content, such as color, line drawing, symbol, map name design, three-dimensional representation of landform, etc. Map printing: study the production process of copied maps and related theories, technical methods, equipment, material properties and uses. Mapometrics: the study of methods and techniques for measuring direction, distance, area and volume on maps.
Map design: Learn the editing and design of maps, the theoretical basis of map design, and the theoretical basis of improving map expressiveness. -intuition because of the use of symbols to represent things; A glimpse of cartographic generalization.
2. Classification of maps. Classification by region: world map, national map, regional map, provincial map, city and county map, township map, etc. 2. Classification by map content: It can be divided into two categories: general maps and thematic maps. A general map is a map that shows the physical geography and socio-economic elements of the earth's surface in relatively balanced details (the basic elements include residential areas, transportation networks, water systems, landforms, fields, soil vegetation, etc. ).
Among them, the detailed representation of the basic elements of the ground is called topographic map; The content is rough, but the main goal is outstanding. A map that mainly reflects the basic distribution law of each element is called a geographical map. Something in between is called a topographic map. Thematic maps are based on ordinary maps, focusing on one or several special elements, and can be divided into physical geography maps, socio-economic maps and engineering technology maps according to content elements.
3. Large-scale topographic maps are classified by scale:1:5000-1:25000; Medium scale topographic map:1:50,000-1:250,000; Small-scale topographic map:1:500,000-1. Seven scales:1:25,000,1:50,000,1:0/10,000,1:250,000,1:500,000,1:/kloc. Standard photo frame for conversion and projection in related content function demonstration column 3. The use of map 4. Basic process of map making —————————— Basic process of map making. [Next] [Home] 1. Earth ellipsoid The earth is a sphere with a very complicated surface. Based on the imaginary "globe" formed by the average static sea surface, an approximate ellipsoid is derived. Theory and practice have proved that the ellipsoid is approximately an ellipsoid rotating around the short axis of the earth. This ellipsoid can be expressed by a mathematical formula, and the points on the natural surface can be normalized to this ellipsoid, so it can be calculated.
Some commonly used ellipsoids and parameters: Hayford ellipsoid (19 10), the reference ellipsoid of China 52 years ago, A = 6378388mb = 6356911.941279α = 0.336700. Quasi-ellipsoid A = 6378245 MB = 6356888 α = 0.0033528131778 WGS-84 ellipsoid (GPS ellipsoid, WGS-84 GPS reference ellipsoid A = 6378137 MB = 6356752. Mα= 0.003528 1006247 The position of any point on the earth ellipsoid can be a geographical coordinate system composed of latitude and longitude, also called geographical coordinate system.
Geographical coordinates are divided into astronomical geographical coordinates and geodetic geographical coordinates. Astronomical geographical coordinates are determined by astronomical survey and geodetic coordinates are determined by geodetic survey. The geographical coordinate system we use on the ellipsoid of the earth belongs to the geodetic coordinate system, which is called geodetic coordinate system for short. After determining the size of the ellipsoid, we need to orient the ellipsoid, that is, put the rotating ellipsoid in an appropriate position on the earth, which is the "coordinate origin" of the geographical coordinate system and the starting point of all geodetic coordinate calculations, commonly known as the "geodetic origin". 2. Map projection is to solve the contradiction of drawing an undeployable ellipsoid on a plane. By means of geometric perspective or mathematical analysis, the points and lines on the earth are projected onto the developable surface (plane, cylinder or cone), and the developable surface is expanded into a plane, and the corresponding relationship between the points and lines on the plane and the points and lines on the earth ellipsoid is established.
Demonstration column 3 of transformation and projection function under related content. . .
3. What is the knowledge on the map?
Editing the map defined in this paragraph is a graphic or image that selectively represents some phenomena of the earth (or other planets) on a plane or a sphere in a two-dimensional or multi-dimensional form and means according to certain rules. It has a strict mathematical foundation, symbol system and text annotation, and can scientifically reflect the distribution characteristics of natural and socio-economic phenomena and their relationships by using the principle of map synthesis.
At present, the definition of map is: a symbolic image model that reflects the objective reality with certain mathematical rules (that is, patterning), symbolization and abstraction, or it is called a graphic mathematical model. Editing this brief history In prehistoric times, the ancients knew to use symbols to record or explain their living environment, the routes they traveled, and so on.
The earliest map that people can find now is the map of Babylon carved on pottery (as shown in figure 0 1-0 1). According to textual research, this is a map of Babylon and its surrounding environment more than 4500 years ago. The Tigris and Euphrates rivers originated in the northern mountainous areas and flowed to the swamps in the south, and Babylon was located between the two mountains. The ancient map that has survived to this day is the map of Nipur Town, which was drawn in 1500 BC. It is stored in the mud excavated by the University of Pennsylvania at the end of Nipur Site (now Niffar, Iraq) 19 (as shown in Figure 0 1-02).
The center of the picture is the name of Nipur city marked in Sumerian, the Euphrates River in the southwest and the Nenbirdu Canal in the northwest. The canal in the city divides niebuhr into two parts, with walls on three sides, and the eastern part is unknown due to the defect of clay tablets. The city walls are painted with gates and marked with names. Outside the city wall, there is a moat in the north and south to protect the city, and the Euphrates River is the barrier in the west.
There are temples and parks in the city, but there are no signs of residential areas. The map scale is about1:1.2000.
There are also maps of gold mines drawn by ancient Egyptians on reeds from BC 1330 to BC 13 17. ? China's records and legends about maps can be traced back to 4000 years ago. Zuo Zhuan recorded the Jiuding map of Xia Dynasty.
There are records of "River Map" and "Luoshu Map" in the ancient classic Book of Changes, which indicates the origin of China's books. There are 17 records about maps in Zhou Li handed down from ancient times, and maps are related to 14 official positions in Zhou Guan, such as Four Books Annotated by Tiangong, Zhang Bang Zhong Edition and Land Map. "Stuart, the local official" is in charge of the map of the state land, and its number helps the king protect the state.
Based on the map of the world, we can know the region of Kyushu and the number of wide wheels, distinguish the name of its mountains, rivers and hills from its original name, and at the same time distinguish the contemptible number of its country, so as to seal it for the boundary and establish its country. And the owner of the tree "local official Si Tuleideng Si Tuleideng Jr." and "where people sue officials, land is not as good as power, and land litigation is to correct it"; Situ Tuxun Local Officials and Mastering Maps to Inform Local Affairs Guan Chun Zongbo Zuren and Xia Guan Sima Sixian take the map of Kyushu to know the obstacles of its mountains and rivers and reach its way. Xia Guan Sima Zhifang's family "holds the map of the world, the land of the world, and distinguishes the contemptibility of its country. Four barbarians and eight barbarians, seven Fu Jian and eight raccoons, five Rong and six Di people, their wealth and use, and the number of nine valleys and six livestock are important. "1June, 954, China archaeologists unearthed the bronze ware" Hou Yi Ya? "The early Western Zhou Dynasty was in Yandun Mountain, Dantu County, Jiangsu Province. There are two inscriptions engraved with the word 120 at the bottom, namely, "the map of the king of Wu, the map of becoming a king" and "the map of the east".
This article records that Zhou Kangwang arrived at Yidi on the basis of these two maps, and held a ceremony to seal Hou. He said: "Only in April in Ding Wei, King Wu Wang went to the province and became a king to cut commercial maps, so he went to the east of the provincial or (national) map.
Wang Li (location) is in Iraq, in Inner Mongolia, and in Nanxiang (direction). Qi Weiwang ordered Hou Yu to say,' It's time to wait for Yu Yi.
According to textual research, the picture was made in BC 1027 or later. These records show that many kinds of maps, such as land maps, military maps and administrative maps, appeared in the Western Zhou Dynasty in China, and were applied in many aspects such as war, administration, transportation, taxation and engineering.
Obviously, these maps have been separated from the original map stage and have an exact scientific overview. Unfortunately, our country has not seen these maps yet, and it needs underground archaeology to find them.
Edit this paragraph type (1) according to its regional scope: world map, hemisphere map, continental map, ocean map, sea map, country (region) map, province map, city and county map, etc. (2) According to its special topics, it is divided into: natural map, population map, economic map, political map, cultural map and historical map.
(3) According to its specific application, it can be divided into: reference map, teaching map, topographic map, aviation map, nautical map, coastal map, astronomical map, traffic map, tourist map, etc. (4) According to its use form, it can be divided into: wall chart, desktop map, atlas (book) and so on.
(5) According to its manifestations, it can be divided into miniature maps, digital maps, electronic maps and image maps. (6) According to its printing format, it is divided into: 16 format, 8 format, 4 format, folio, full sheet, two full sheets, three full sheets, four full sheets and nine full sheets.
(7) Classification by map: atlas, electronic map, three-dimensional map, satellite map, image map, etc. According to the content of the map, the map can be divided into three types: ordinary map, topographic map and thematic map.
Ordinary map is a map showing the main natural and socio-economic phenomena on the ground in the same degree of detail, which can comprehensively reflect the geographical characteristics of the mapping area, including water system, topography, soil, vegetation, residential areas, traffic networks, boundary lines and major socio-economic factors. The difference between it and topographic map is that it has some flexibility in map projection, framing, scale and representation method, and its representation content is more general than topographic map of the same scale, and its geometric accuracy is lower than topographic map.
The topographic map refers to several basic national scales (1:5000, 1: 1 000, 1:25000, 1:50000,1:/kloc- It is measured (or compiled) according to a unified standard and symbol system, and represents all kinds of geographical things in a comprehensive and detailed way. The geometric accuracy is high, which can meet the needs of various maps. It is the basic data for national construction and the original data for compiling other maps.
Thematic maps focus on the geographical distribution of one or more natural or socio-economic phenomena, or emphasize some characteristics of these phenomena. Thematic maps have a variety of themes and serve a variety of customers.
It can be further divided into natural map and society.