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About 8,000 kilometers west of Beijing is the western end of Eurasia. Across the strait from here, there is an island country called "United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland", which we usually call "Britain". Today, this country has an area of only 240,000 square kilometers and a population of only 60 million, but it occupies a very special position in modern world history.
It is the first country to step into the modern society, and it is the leader of world development in18th century and19th century. Proud Britons once described their country as an "empire that never falls", because at the end of 19, its colonies spread all over Asia, Africa, America and Oceania, with a total area of 9.3 million square kilometers, ruling over 300 million people in the world.
What is the reason that this small island, which was originally floating peacefully in the ocean, gave birth to extraordinary energy, changed itself and affected the world?
The third episode towards modernization
1588 On July 7th, the current in the Atlantic Ocean was as rough as any previous summer.
On this day, 130 warships, 8,000 sailors and 20,000 soldiers set sail from Spain. This powerful team has a distinguished name-Armada. The powerful Spanish Empire, under its protection, ruled for more than half a century.
The purpose of the Armada's trip is to control the English Channel and teach England, an island country in the Atlantic Ocean.
Richard Harding, Professor of university of westminster, UK:
The Spanish-English War originated from the Reformation. In 1930s, Britain has become a Protestant country. Catholic Spain wants Britain to return to Catholicism and accept the control of Mary, the daughter of Henry VIII.
In addition to religious belief, another important reason why the Spanish king went to war and used force was that the English tried to seize and expand the maritime superiority, and the interests of the Spanish empire were violated unprecedentedly.
Why did a small island country, which has been ignored by the European continent, challenge Spain, the largest empire in the world at that time? Why on earth do the British dare to confront Spain, which has been riding the ocean for nearly a hundred years?
The woman in the oil painting, decorated with a huge skirt hoop, stiff ruffled collar, wide sleeves and embroidered with a golden veil, was Elizabeth I, the ruler of England at that time. Under the complicated clothes, the figure of women disappeared, and people remembered a solemn and arrogant kingship idol. A famous British biographer described the unmarried queen who had been enthroned for 25 years: "This fierce old hen sat motionless and nurtured the English nation. The new force of this country, under her wings, has matured and unified rapidly. She sat quietly, but every feather stood on end. "
1558 When Elizabeth I succeeded to the throne, news came from the other side of the English Channel that Spanish and Portuguese explorers had succeeded in making a fortune. This information is a clear signal to the ignorant people in the coming era. It means: in the face of a world that has just been rediscovered, whoever can seize the opportunity faster, accept new ideas and break old values will become rich and powerful faster. In the rules of the game in the new world, winning the ocean is more important than winning the land.
History has limited the opportunity for every nation to take off. As the supreme ruler of the country, Elizabeth I did not miss the opportunity. Nowhere in Britain is the distance from the ocean more than120km. The Queen believes that this natural advantage can be used to develop maritime trade. But doing so is tantamount to taking food from the Spanish. Elizabeth I knew her opponent's strength very well, and she didn't want to lose to Spain in public confrontation.
Harry Dickens, Vice President of the Royal Historical Society:
Therefore, the Queen encouraged privateers, pirates such as Raleigh and Drake, and others to expand British trade, open up colonies such as Virginia, and even attack Spanish trade. They act like privateers. They are almost pirates. Therefore, if they have a conflict with Spain, the Queen can deny that they have anything to do with her and say that they have violated the official policy of the government. In this way, the queen can not involve some naval actions, but actively encourage them, because she sees this as a way to develop the country.
This is the port of Plymouth in the south of England./kloc-Most English sailors set sail from here in the 6th century.
1580, Plymouth native Frances Drake became the first person to sail around the world by himself. During the three-year voyage, Drake's fleet not only plundered Spanish colonies in South America, but also attacked Spanish ports in Europe. Drake, who came home with a full load, brought 4700 times of profits to investors. As one of the funders, Elizabeth I received a bonus of163,000, which was almost equivalent to the government's annual expenditure at that time.
The noble queen herself came to Drake's ship and solemnly conferred the title of Knight Drake, a professional pirate. The success of compatriots and the encouragement of the Queen have boosted the confidence of the British people to cross the sea, and more and more people have joined the ranks of overseas plunder and trade.
However, these new competitors obviously stole the limelight of Spain, the largest empire in the world at that time. After repeated struggles and conflicts, King Philip II of Spain was completely angered. /kloc-in the summer of 0/588, he sent his own armada across the English Channel and attacked Britain with terrible power to cover the sun.
Professor Liu Xincheng of Capital Normal University:
1588 "The Spanish-English War" was one of the most important naval battles in human history, which determined the fate of Europe in early modern times and also influenced the world in early modern times to some extent.
Elizabeth I tried to solve the crisis through negotiation, but Philip II sneered. He firmly believes that the Armada will announce the defeat of the British in two weeks.
However, two weeks later, the situation was just the opposite. The Armada met its strongest rival in the Atlantic Ocean, a small fleet composed of merchant ships and pirates.
Professor Liu Xincheng of Capital Normal University:
At first, Spain wanted to annihilate the British fleet in one fell swoop by virtue of its large population and large ships. But it didn't expect that the British fleet was small in scale, but it had more advanced artillery. Coupled with the climate, the British fleet used its flexibility in the war.
After several days of fierce fighting, Spain's armada was beaten out of the water by the British, half of which sank to the bottom of the sea and half fled home. The British captain was even a little disappointed with the victory because they didn't destroy their opponents. But in fact, the significance of this victory is far beyond their imagination.
Professor Pauline Croft of the Royal Historical Society:
This victory also greatly boosted the morale of the British people. Looking back at history, it really marks the rise of British maritime power in the17th century. From then on, the hegemony of Spain began to shift to Britain. Fifty years after the Armada fiasco, Spain still maintains its status as a big country, but obviously its foundation has been shaken.
Britain's victory in the 1588 naval battle between Britain and the West was a victory of defeating the strong with the weak, which once again showed the strength of the nation-state under the rule of kingship. For the first time, the island countries, which have long been outside the mainstream civilization in Europe, made a voice to the European continent as a powerful country and quickly entered the center of the world's maritime hegemony and commercial hegemony.
Spain gradually withdrew from the main stage of history, and a new maritime power rose. How far can Elizabeth I lead this rising island country?
Harry Dickens, Vice President of the Royal Historical Society:
You need to remember that Britain was actually a small country with a small population at the end of 16. Britain's strength was finally achieved through commercial and colonial economic expansion. Spain blocked its development, and so did the Dutch and later French. Therefore, Britain must use its navy to challenge the authority and strength of all these countries and compete for their colonies and trade, and Elizabeth I was the first person who really succeeded in doing this.
Professor Pauline Croft of the Royal Historical Society:
In my opinion, a strong monarchy is a key link in the transformation of European and British society from the Middle Ages to the modern society. A strong monarch is beneficial to these countries, because they are the core of patriotism and can give clear leadership to the country.
The powerful monarchy brought early glory to Britain and made it an important step to become a great country. With the continuous expansion of overseas expansion and trade, the appearance and temperament of this island country are also quietly changing.
The area of London has doubled, and the population of 1600 has exceeded 200,000, making it the largest city in Europe. On the north bank of the Thames that runs through London, the magnificent buildings of the city are concentrated; There are all kinds of theaters everywhere on the South Bank. Today, these theaters are hard to find, but one theater is an exception.
This circular building is called the Globe Theatre. It was built in 1997, but all the materials and layout in it completely preserved the appearance of Elizabeth I, and the theater took nearly 50 years from preparation to completion. The purpose of this construction, regardless of working hours, is not simply to add a cultural landscape. More importantly, 400 years ago, Shakespeare, a dramatist called "one of the greatest geniuses of mankind" by Marx, was once a shareholder, actor and playwright of this theater.
This short playwright from a remote village shows amazing talent and insight into people's inner world in his 37 plays. Shakespeare stood at the ideological height of16th century, dug out the human characteristics hidden in the depths of history and threw them at people's feet. He said, "Look, my friends, human beings were not created according to my specifications. All I can do is let you see their true faces. "
Today, people use this 1600-seat "Globe Theatre" to express their memory of this genius. The performance season from May to September is still full, and the world-recognized classic plays of Shakespeare are still the only choice for the theater.
Professor Liu Xincheng of Capital Normal University:
In Shakespeare's historical plays, the monarch is often the villain. Queen Elizabeth certainly knows this. She didn't ban Shakespeare's plays. Although in a play like Hamlet, there is "fragility, your name is a woman!" Such lines. However, this does not affect Queen Elizabeth sitting in the box opposite the stage to watch the play.
The queen's tolerance has made Shakespeare's artistic height. The queen's openness is not only manifested in her attitude towards art, but also in her superb skills and wisdom in handling state affairs. The queen understands that the foundation of power is a country made up of all the British people. Without the support of the people, the dynasty could not stand on its feet. In order to gain the support of the people, Elizabeth I adhered to an important political tradition handed down by her ancestors while strengthening the royal power.
This political tradition comes from the ancient past.
This seemingly powerful man was the most important king in the early history of England. His title is William I. From this king, the British royal family has an authentic lineage and established a feudal system like continental Europe.
Professor Guo Fang from Institute of World History, China Academy of Social Sciences:
The feudal system in Europe is based on manor, which is not only a piece of real estate, but also a political unit. Noble lords not only have judicial power, but also have management power and administrative jurisdiction over the manor, so the manor is like an independent kingdom.
Professor Hou Jianxin from School of History and Culture, Tianjin Normal University, China:
The word "feudalism" has different meanings in Europe and China. In China, it means "the land of kings is everywhere, and the land of kings is the land of princes". It stands for centralization and autocracy. In Europe, because feudalism is a manor system, it means decentralization, which means that the king has no power to unify.
In the early days of British feudalism, kings and nobles were very aware of their status and knew what they should and should not have according to their duties. Although there is no written law, for a long time, it has become a common rule in British society that kings and nobles abide by their mutual commitments, fulfill their obligations and enjoy their rights. However, the relationship between the king and the nobility is not static.
At the beginning of13rd century, a belligerent king John appeared in England. In successive years of foreign wars, he almost lost all the territory of England on the European continent. Therefore, King John is also known as the "Land Lost King". In order to maintain the war, King John intensified the exploitation of citizens and nobles.
He raised the inheritance tax of nobles by 100 times, and the exemption tax of military service by 16 times. At the same time, the prices of cattle, sheep and wheat have doubled.
Professor Hou Jianxin from School of History and Culture, Tianjin Normal University, China:
Yue became more and more unscrupulous. He keeps levying new taxes and increasing taxes. In this way, he broke the unwritten but long-standing agreement between the nobility and the king. 12 15 In the spring, the angry nobles rallied and armed against the king. The reason is simple: the king did not fulfill his obligations, but demanded more powers than those stipulated in the convention.
This is a quiet and beautiful lawn by the Thames. The Greek-style dome memorial pavilion on this lawn was once located between the victorious aristocratic armed forces and King John's station. 12 15 On June 15, King John, who was in a desperate situation, had to agree to negotiate with 25 aristocratic representatives around the pavilion. This is a difficult negotiation. Under the shadow of swords and swords, the aristocratic representatives met with the king and compromised for four days. Finally, the declaration of a peaceful truce, Magna Carta, was finally signed.
At that time, neither of the signatories realized what they had done and were writing an important chapter in British history.
Professor Hou Jianxin from School of History and Culture, Tianjin Normal University, China:
There are two most famous clauses in the Magna Carta, which were later written into British law. The first is that the king should swear to be "fair to anyone and not deprive others of their rights"; The other is that if the court has no ruling, the king can't arrest and deprive others of their property. These two articles show that the rights of subjects are independent and not given by the king, so the king cannot deprive them.
In the treasure exhibition hall of the British Library, a piece of black and yellow parchment lay quietly in the dark light and shadow under the glass plate. This thin parchment is the Magna Carta, which has a history of about 800 years. Although its edge has been damaged and the handwriting written with quill pen has long been blurred, it has become a permanent witness to the limitation of the monarch's power.
It has only 63 paragraphs and only a few thousand words, but it is the first time to transform the established but vague right relationship between the king and the nobility into a clear legal text. Since then, the power of the king of England is no longer supreme, and he can only exercise his power under the restrictions of the law.
After King John signed the Alliance under the Door, successive British monarchs continued to promulgate the Magna Carta, and made some modifications. Over the centuries, the Magna Carta has been promulgated more than 40 times. Although Magna Carta is not clearly perceived by most British people in many cases, this long-term reaffirmation and popularization has accumulated profound traditional strength and injected the basic spirit of contract and legal system into the British ideological foundation.
This wide and gentle river is the Thames, which Churchill called "the river that runs through English history". The Parliament Building in Britain is the most striking building along the Thames.
Only 2 1 year after the signing of Magna Carta, the word "parliament" appeared in the official documents of Britain. Relying on the legal principle of Magna Carta, this institution, which was transformed from the nobles and the king's parliament, gradually became an important force to limit the power of the monarch. The famous Big Ben in Parliament Building rings every 15 minutes. Like a vigilant and loyal guard on duty, he performs his duties meticulously, and the error never exceeds one second.
Elizabeth I was able to bring early glory to Britain, largely because, like the hand of Big Ben, she abided by the provisions of the Magna Carta and maintained the balance between the royal power and the aristocratic parliament.
Harry Dickens, Vice President of the Royal Historical Society:
Elizabeth (I) is an autocratic monarch, but she is not a tyrant or a person who tries to do whatever she wants. She tried to rule according to accepted laws and practices. She often called parliament-not every year, but later she called it every year-to implement the policies that most people, especially influential people, want.
During Elizabeth I's 45-year ruling career, the queen who is good at coordinating various relationships did not abuse her power and prestige. She is frugal all her life and doesn't fight easily. When there is a conflict between kingship and parliament, she always makes necessary concessions according to the situation. In her life, the expansion of kingship was always within the tolerance of parliament. The balance and order between them have brought a relatively stable and relaxed social environment to Britain.
1603, Elizabeth I died at the age of 80. In order to avoid the harm of political marriage to the national interests, the queen has never been married and lived a lonely life, leaving behind a Britain with growing national strength and an upward trend.
Twenty-two years later, another king who had a far-reaching influence on British history ascended the throne. This is a young monarch. He can not only ride a fierce horse, but also shoot arrows and guns. His title is Charles I.
After Elizabeth I brought Britain into the ranks of great powers by monarchy, can Charles I continue the favorable situation initiated by the Queen? Can he lead Britain? This is Whitehall Street in London, and almost all major government departments in Britain are concentrated on both sides of this street. In Baiting Street, the oldest building is the banquet hall built in 16 19. According to records, it was the tallest building in London at that time. On the broad ceiling of the hall, the works of oil painting master Rubens are still bright, and the story of an elderly king being crowned by an angel still exudes the vivid atmosphere of the world. It is said that the person who solemnly invited Rubens to create these oil paintings was 18 King Charles I in English history.
Professor Xiang Rong, School of History, Wuhan University, China:
The king especially believes in divine right. In the banquet hall, he asked the painter to paint his father as a saint. He also asked Rubens to describe Britain's foreign expansion as an expedition according to God's will. Therefore, in his mind, on the one hand, these oil paintings symbolize the divine right given by God, on the other hand, they also entrust him with an ambition to expand the territory.
Faced with the glory brought by the royal power of Elizabeth I, the young monarch who stood above the authority of the former king was convinced that he was the highest authority sent by God to the world and had supreme power. But he neglected one thing, that is the support of the people and the interests of the nation. This concept, which often appeared in Elizabeth I's mind, gradually disappeared in Charles I's mind.
After Charles I succeeded to the throne, he soon encountered a financial crisis. The intricate religious war between Britain, Spain and France, which he personally led, made the treasury empty and the finance tight. In order to maintain the war, the most important means Charles I thought of was to increase taxes.
However, the king of England can't do whatever he wants in this matter. Because since the signing of the magna carta, the right to levy new taxes belongs to parliament. If the king wants to levy new taxes, he must get the approval of parliament.
Professor Xiang Rong, School of History, Wuhan University, China:
At this time, the parliament did not approve enough funds for Charles I's engagement; In addition, it also rejected the king's proposal to increase taxes because of the war; Not only that, the parliament also stipulated that the king could only collect tariffs for one year and could not enjoy the right to collect tariffs for life.
Charles I, who wanted to create the same achievements as Elizabeth I, was forced by the curse issued by parliament.
He began to levy new taxes on businessmen without going through parliament and forced loans to the squire.
The fierce contest between the king and parliament began.
1629, Charles I sent troops to forcibly dissolve the parliament held in England for more than three centuries. However, during the period of 1 1 year without parliament, the British did not forget the rules formed over the centuries.
Professor Qian Chengdan, History Department of Peking University, China:
In the history of Britain, two principles have been formed. One is that the king is in parliament, which means that the king must rule through parliament. Second, the king is under the law, that is, the law is higher than the king, and the king must obey the law. What Charles I did, however, destroyed both these principles. As a result, the contradiction between parliament and king became more and more serious, and the opposition became more and more acute, which eventually led to the outbreak of the 1642 war, which was the famous "English Revolution" in modern history, the so-called "English Civil War".
This is a war for the supreme power of the country. In the war, a parliamentary general named oliver cromwell stood out. Under his leadership, the king's army was completely defeated, the Republic of England was founded, and Charles I was captured.
The banquet hall in Whitehall Street did not witness the ambition of Charles I, but witnessed another important moment in British history. Shortly after Rubens' painting was completed, Charles I himself came to the end of his life, just outside the banquet hall he had carefully built, even where his father, who was portrayed as a saint, could see it.
1649 65438+1October 30th, on a sunny winter day, thousands of Londoners gathered in the square in front of the banquet hall in the early morning, with contradictory expressions of sadness, fear, excitement and loss hanging on their faces. In uncontrollable anxiety, they are waiting for a beheading penalty, that is, King Charles I, who was condemned by Parliament as a "tyrant, murderer and enemy of the country".
Charles I behaved very calmly. Before stepping on the execution ground, he insisted on wearing two shirts, so that he wouldn't tremble with cold and make onlookers mistakenly think that he was afraid. After leaving his last words and prayers, the 49-year-old monarch stayed in court for 24 years. He put his head on the anvil and reached out to the executioner to put down his axe.
What happened in 1649 had little impact on the Qing Dynasty in China, which had just entered the customs for five years, but it was completely different for the European continent. European courts, large and small, were shocked. At that time, these imperial courts were either autocratic monarchy or eager to implement it. The practice of Britain, an island country across the sea, transcended the common political concept of that era.
Professor Qian Chengdan, History Department of Peking University, China:
In the final analysis, Charles I violated the tradition of so-called freedom formed in Britain since ancient times. The so-called freedom, at first, was the nobles' opposition to the king, and then it gradually became the whole country's opposition to the king's tyranny. For hundreds of years, this struggle between kingship and civil rights has been a main line in the development of British political history. Then it was in this struggle that Britain stepped out of the Middle Ages and entered the modern world.
After the death of Charles I, Parliament handed over the administrative power to the State Council headed by Cromwell. However, the new life that the British expected did not come.
Soon, Cromwell began to practice military dictatorship. The achievements of the British civil war in overthrowing the autocratic dynasty, like watercolors pasted on a glass plate, were washed away by Cromwell's dictatorship and social unrest. The revolution begins with resisting the tyranny of one person, but ends with the tyranny of another. Lord protector Cromwell became a "king" without a king's name. 1653, Parliament was dissolved again.
Things are always the opposite. After Cromwell died, the declining dynasty was invited back with a grand ceremony. 1685, after a series of complicated regime changes, James II, son of Charles I, succeeded to the throne. Deeply moved by his father's tragedy, James II didn't want to make the same mistake. He wants to expand the army and try to bring Britain back to the era of Charles I.
Harry Dickens, Vice President of the Royal Historical Society:
People don't want to risk a possible civil war. They want James II to be a respected and rational king. But it turns out that he is a terrible king. He went his own way and broke away from parliamentary rule, threatening the interests of the City of London and many other towns. Act like an absolute monarch. He made most British production elites feel that they had to overthrow him.
In the face of James II's tyranny, what way will the British at the crossroads choose to resist?
A country's political choice is often influenced by tradition and some major events.
This time, the British did not take the violent revolution as they did with Charles I. The lesson told them that it was easy to overthrow the dynasty and difficult to establish a new system. They are not called Cromwell, because Cromwell-style revolution did not bring real progress and development to the country. So, 1688 English
Unfinished ~ ~ ~ ~ and the second half.
This is a review of The Rise of Great Powers, which I believe you have read. . . . .