International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)

A symbol system for recording pronunciation formulated by the International Phonetic Association. The original meaning of the international phonetic alphabet, IPA for short. /kloc-at the end of 0/9th century, in view of the confusion of the phonetic notation scheme in western linguistics at that time, which was not conducive to research and teaching, language teachers in some schools established the phonetic notation teachers' association in London, England. They discussed and worked out an international phonetic symbol scheme. This project was initiated by H. Sweet in Britain, completed by P. Passy in France and D. Jones in Britain on 1888, and published in the journal Phonetics Teachers of the Association. This is the first international phonetic symbol in history. Later, the association gradually developed, and phonetic teachers from all over the world joined the association. 1897, the association changed its name to the International Phonetics Association. The International Phonetic Alphabet Watch Industry has been revised and supplemented by the International Phonetic Alphabet Association for many times, and now it is the revised scheme of 1979.

Early linguists set up their own phonetic notation methods for their own research needs, which brought inconvenience to communication. After the publication of the International Phonetic Alphabet, the principle of one symbol and one sound was strictly stipulated. In languages that use pinyin schemes, the same letter usually has several pronunciations in different words. In addition, the same sound has different spellings in different languages. In the arrangement of the international phonetic alphabet, the abscissa and ordinate of consonants are roughly determined according to the pronunciation position and pronunciation method, and the position of vowels is determined according to the tongue position, which is convenient for analysis and mastery.

The letters used in the International Phonetic Alphabet are based on Latin letters, but people's voices are very different, and the limited Latin letters are far from enough, so they are supplemented by changing fonts and borrowing letters from other languages. In order to take care of habits, most symbols are based on the principle of still reading the original sounds of Latin or other languages. At present, there are 72 consonants and 23 vowels in the phonetic symbols on the traffic table, which is generally enough to mark pronunciation.

This international phonetic symbol was created by scholars in Britain and France, and is mainly used to mark Indo-European languages, African languages and some minority languages. After its publication, it became more popular in European linguistics. Most Americans still use their own symbols to learn the language of American Indians. Some sounds in Chinese dialects cannot be listed in this table. There are only eight tone symbols in the International Phonetic Alphabet List, which are flat tone, rising tone, falling tone and two concave-convex tones, which is not enough to study and describe tonal language. Zhao Yuanren put forward a tone symbol of pentatonic scale, called "tone letter", which was published in Phonetics Teacher 1930. It is applicable to all tonal language and has been adopted by most international scholars.

I. International Phonetic Alphabet and Its Setting Background

Phonetic symbols are symbols for recording phonemes and indispensable tools for learning and recording phonetics. According to the different scope of use, phonetic symbols can be divided into two types, one is suitable for a certain language, such as Chinese Pinyin is only suitable for Chinese, Russian Slavic phonetic symbols are suitable for Russian, and English Webster phonetic symbols are suitable for English; One is the universal phonetic system, which can be used to record all human languages, such as the International Phonetic Alphabet.

The appearance of international phonetic symbols is not accidental. It can be said that it is the product of the development of social science, culture and linguistics to a certain stage. The development of linguistics itself is the internal cause of the emergence of international phonetic symbols, while the development of natural science and social science is the external cause of the emergence of international phonetic symbols.

From the end of 19 to the middle of the 20th century, a structuralist revolution took place in the fields of natural science and humanities all over the world. /kloc-In the second half of the 9th century, Mendeleev founded the "Periodic Table of Chemical Elements", which classified and arranged the elements known at that time, thus discovering the laws. Scientists are greatly inspired by the arrangement of the periodic table of elements and use it to explore new elements. 1897, scientists discovered electrons, and through a series of experiments and studies, they uncovered the mystery of atomic nucleus, realizing that atoms are also composed of certain structures, and their core (nucleus) is composed of protons and neutrons. This series of achievements urges people to think and realize that any objective thing has a complex hierarchical structure, and the arrangement and combination of its structural units have certain regularity.

Linguistics itself has developed by leaps and bounds in the19th century. At this time, historical comparative linguistics was established to compare the history of Indo-European languages, which produced a set of research theories and methods, especially the application of historical comparative methods, which had a great influence on many disciplines. Since then, linguistics has got rid of its long-standing position as a vassal of other disciplines and embarked on the road of independent development. With the deepening of language comparative research, linguists have realized the importance of phonetic notation in the research, and urgently need a phonetic notation system that can record all sounds, so as to facilitate phonetic research and teaching.

Under the dynamic influence and promotion of such internal and external factors, the international phonetic symbol is ready to appear.

From 65438 to 0886, some phonetics workers and language teachers established the International Phonetics Association in London, England, with the purpose of language teaching and research. The people who preside over this association are P. Passy of France and D.Hones of England. The members of the association are international from the beginning and come from many European countries. In May of the same year, the Association published a publication called Phonetics Teachers, the content of which was completely printed with phonetic symbols (the publication was renamed as Journal of the International Phonetics Society on 197 1).

Members of the association have studied the physiological basis of phonetic symbols, that is, the phonemes marked by phonetic symbols should be the sounds that can be emitted by various parts of the human vocal organs, in fact, the sounds of different languages. Therefore, they drew up a set of phonetic symbols and marked each different phoneme with different symbols.

At the beginning of Lenovo, phonetic symbols were in the primary stage, and there was no unified standard. Every phonetic symbol is used, which is confusing, which affects phonetic research and mutual communication. In view of this situation, Jaspers wrote to Percy and suggested that a unified phonetic symbol suitable for all sounds should be formulated. This letter was published in the No.7 phonetic teacher of 1886, and received enthusiastic response from the members of the association. According to the draft proposed by H.Sweet, Percy designed a phonetic recording system, which was published in the eighth issue of 1888 Phonetics Teacher after many consultations and revisions. This is the International Phonetic Alphabet. Later, the International Phonetic Alphabet was often published in journals, which was convenient for linguists to learn and use.

At first, the International Phonetic Alphabet was a phonetic system used to record European languages, but there were not many phonetic symbols. Later, with the deepening of language research and the participation of teachers from many countries, more and more phonetic phonemes were exposed, and the original symbols were not enough to record new phonemes. Therefore, scholars constantly revise and improve the international phonetic symbols, improve inappropriate symbols and expand letters to meet the needs of recording different sounds. At present, all the international phonetic symbols we can see are revised to 1979.

International Phonetic Alphabet arranges phonemes vertically and horizontally according to the position and pronunciation method of human vocal organs, and systematically classifies all human phonetic phonemes. There are 1 1 pronunciation parts such as lips, lips, teeth, between teeth, in front of the tip of the tongue, in front of the tongue and behind the tongue, and there are 8 pronunciation methods such as stop, stop, nasal and side sound. Each phoneme can find its own position at the intersection of vertical and horizontal, that is, it has both a certain pronunciation part and a certain pronunciation method. Each phoneme has its own characteristics. It differs from other phonemes not in position, but in method. This is very similar in form to the periodic table showing the chemical properties of basic elements. International Phonetic Alphabet also shows the essence of basic phonemes: each phoneme is associated with other phonemes with the same characteristics through its own distinctive features, aggregated into groups, and combined with other phonemes according to certain rules.

International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA) is formulated for all human voices and can be used to record phonemes of any voice system. When the International Phonetic Alphabet Association announced the International Phonetic Alphabet Scheme, it also explained the principles for making this scheme. The second article points out: "Phonemes in many languages use the same symbols in every language. So do very similar phonemes. " Therefore, the International Phonetic Alphabet is universal, and the phoneme it represents is unique. If several completely different languages use the same symbol in the international phonetic alphabet, it can only show that this phoneme exists in the phonetic systems of these languages and the timbre is exactly the same. For example, when we learn Chinese or English, we will come into contact with phonemes like [P]. [L]。 [N]。 [M]。 Answer. [O]。 [U]。 [I], which shows that both Chinese and English have these phonemes.

Indeed, many alternative ways of recording sounds with letters in the International Phonetic Alphabet can be said to be unprecedented and groundbreaking. For example, the International Phonetic Alphabet uses lowercase capital letters, inverted letters, inverted letters, combined letters, double letters and additional symbols. Basically, Latin letters (only a few Greek letters are borrowed) form a voice recording system, which meets the needs of recording different sounds. This pioneering work has achieved unprecedented success.

Since the advent of the International Phonetic Alphabet, its influence in the world is expanding day by day, and it has been widely used. As the International Phonetics Society said in its brief history of 60th anniversary, "Not only the official publications of the Society use the International Phonetic Alphabet to record sounds, but also authors unrelated to the Society in various countries use the International Phonetic Alphabet to record sounds in many dictionaries and textbooks. More importantly, some special letters learned have been officially adopted by some languages in Africa and become popular words. "

Second, the characteristics and functions of international phonetic symbols

International phonetic symbols have the following characteristics and advantages:

First, remember the sound accurately. The International Phonetic Alphabet is a sound, a symbol and a sound. That is, a phoneme is only represented by a symbol, and a symbol can only represent a fixed phoneme. For example, in the Chinese phonetic alphabet "pa.zhang.ai.ian", four A's are actually four different phonemes, but they are all represented by a letter A, while the International Phonetic Alphabet uses four letters with different shapes to represent these different phonemes: a.a.ε (or p); Another example is the I in Chinese Pinyin, which represents three phonemes, and the International Phonetic Alphabet is represented by three different symbols.

Second, the text is concise, easy to learn and use. Article 5 of the Principles for the Formulation of International Phonetic Alphabet stipulates: "The appearance of new letters should be similar to that of old letters, and you can think at a glance what sounds they represent." Therefore, the phonemes represented by the symbols of the International Phonetic Alphabet are as consistent as possible with those represented by the traditional Latin alphabet. For example, the letter b.p.m is a lip sound, and the international phonetic alphabet is used to represent the phoneme of the lips, in which P breathing on the lips consists of an additional symbol H, and others, such as d.t representing the tenor of the tip of the tongue and g.k representing the sound after the tip of the tongue, are all "to determine the sound quality of Roman letters according to international habits" (Article 4 of the Principles for the Establishment of International Phonetic Alphabet).

So use the 26 most popular Latin letters in the world as the symbol basis. In the case of insufficient letters, adopt some flexible methods: use lowercase and uppercase letters, such as are；; Inverted letters: c; Represented by two letters: ts.ts.tt; ; Conjunction letter: p? . ? ; Letter deformation: S. ? .ê.÷.？ . ? ; Additional symbol:? . pH.k '。 a)； In Greek letters: b? T, wait These methods not only make full use of traditional letters, but also innovate on the basis of tradition. It can be said that the new letter form was produced without creating letters. When people see the international phonetic symbols, they are familiar with each other, have no strangeness, are easy to accept emotionally, and are easy to read and write, which meets the requirements of recording various phonemes. If designers don't use letters flexibly at first, it is not only technically difficult, but also very difficult for people to learn a set of symbols again, and it is also very difficult to popularize phonetic symbols.

Third, it is flexible to use. The symbols on the International Phonetic Alphabet are limited. When recording some languages, we will inevitably encounter some special phonemes, so we can create new symbols according to the principles formulated by the International Phonetic Alphabet. For example, 1979 adds a vowel in front of the tongue, and the low and round lips, that is, the round lip sound of [a], are composed of the letters o and e, which is in line with the international phonetic alphabet. In addition, the International Phonetic Alphabet also provides unified additional symbols, with more than 30 kinds, which are internationally recognized. For example, putting "~" on vowels means nasal vowels, "h" on the upper right corner of letters means aspirated pronunciation, ":"on the right side of vowels means long vowels, and so on. This not only accurately distinguishes the sound quality of phonemes, but also avoids creating new letters.

The International Phonetic Alphabet has the following functions:

First, it is conducive to learning pronunciation. When learning the pronunciation of a language, if we master the international phonetic symbols, we can not only learn by ourselves, but also master the pronunciation accurately and carefully, and distinguish the phonemes that are easy to be confused. The International Phonetic Alphabet is a symbol and a sound, and the sound it represents is similar to the actual phoneme. As long as we pronounce according to the phonetic symbols, we can accurately pronounce the sound of a word, even if we can't use the word yet, it doesn't prevent us from recognizing it. Especially in learning foreign languages, the International Phonetic Alphabet can be said to be an excellent tool. For example, English dictionaries published in China, whether large or small, are marked with international phonetic symbols. Through the phonetic notation in the dictionary, we can pronounce it accurately. For example, the correct pronunciation of the English word "good" is [gud], but because there is no voiced consonant in Mandarin, many people pronounce the voiced sound in this word as [kut]. If they had studied the International Phonetic Alphabet and knew that G and D stand for voiced sounds, instead of G and D in Chinese Pinyin, they would not have mispronounced them.

Second, it is conducive to phonetic research. When learning phonetics, it is inevitable to involve ancient sounds and dialects. At this time, a set of phonetic symbols is needed to mark related phonemes, and international phonetic symbols can be said to be the best choice. For example, in ancient Chinese, the initial consonants of voiced consonants are systematic, while in modern Chinese, except for several sounds such as m.n.l, they are not as voiced as in ancient times. There are many dialects in China, with great differences. A complete set of phonetic symbols is needed to study the general situation and describe the dialect system, so only international phonetic symbols can be used. Without a unified international phonetic symbol, we can't record the special phonemes in ancient times and dialects. If we still use Chinese characters such as "Bang, Pang, Bing, Ming, Ding and Zhao" like the ancients, it will be difficult to analyze different phonemes clearly.

Even if we analyze the phonetic system of modern Mandarin, we should rely on international phonetic symbols, and it is not enough to rely solely on Chinese Pinyin. For example, I in the three syllables of Chinese pinyin bi.zi.zhi is actually three different phonemes. The first syllable is pre-phonetic, the second syllable is pre-phonetic, and the third syllable is post-phonetic. The International Phonetic Alphabet is represented by three different symbols. There are many differences like this, and the International Phonetic Alphabet can distinguish these different phonemes very carefully. Therefore, the International Phonetic Alphabet is also helpful for us to know and learn the pronunciation of Putonghua.

Third, the study of international phonetic symbols.

To learn the International Phonetic Alphabet, we must first get rid of its mystery. International phonetic symbols, like Chinese Pinyin, are actually a set of phonetic symbols, but they are not designed for a certain language, but for all human languages. Phonemes of Putonghua can also be recorded by international phonetic symbols, which can distinguish the phonemes of Putonghua in more detail. The author once met several students and asked what sounds were recorded by the International Phonetic Alphabet and how to pronounce them. In particular, students who have mastered the Chinese Pinyin scheme can't turn to the International Phonetic Alphabet, and always feel that the International Phonetic Alphabet is a bit strange and incredible. Indeed, some students have studied pinyin for decades, and think that it is natural to use the letter B to indicate that the lip sound is not aspirated and the pronunciation is clear. Suddenly they came into contact with the international phonetic alphabet and used a good B as [p], which was really unacceptable at once. As for the symbols representing retrolingual sounds and tongue sounds, it is even more awkward.

In fact, to be fair, the phonetic symbols of international phonetic symbols are more regular and easier to master than those of Chinese pinyin. For example, Mandarin has three pairs of stops, and Mandarin is represented by six letters of b.p.d.t.g.k, while the International Phonetic Alphabet only uses three letters of p.t.k Because the three pairs of stops are mainly the difference between aspirated or not, the International Phonetic Alphabet uses additional symbols. In Mandarin, the three-to-six-syllable fricative is also the antonym of aspirated or not, and the International Phonetic Alphabet has done the same, using only three symbols to record. Moreover, because the affricate has the characteristics of affricate and affricate, these three groups of phonemes are all represented by two letters, and the components of affricate are selected as symbols, while the components of affricate are selected as affricate symbols in the same position, such as TS. It is not difficult to master the arrangement and composition of international phonetic symbols.

Of course, in order to master the International Phonetic Alphabet more accurately, it is better for beginners to arrange the Chinese Pinyin and the International Phonetic Alphabet first to learn and see their similarities and differences, so that they can master it more easily. The following is a comparison table of initials and consonants between the International Phonetic Alphabet and Chinese Pinyin:

(Directory cannot be pasted, please check the link)-referenced by mswc.

As can be seen from the above table, there is a considerable difference in form between the International Phonetic Alphabet and the Chinese Pinyin. There are 22 consonants in Mandarin, and only 5 consonants in f.m.n.l.s are written in this way, and the other 17 are different. Some are very different, and some are only the differences of additional symbols. Learning needs careful comparison, and we should pay attention to both big differences and small differences. Among them, the six stops and six stops in the first and second lines are worthy of attention. Each group of letters of the International Phonetic Alphabet has the same form, but the second line is aspirated, and the aspirated symbol "'"is added. For example, three groups of stops, Chinese Pinyin stands for aspirated sound, while the International Phonetic Alphabet is just the opposite, representing non-aspirated sound, Chinese Pinyin stands for aspirated sound, and the International Phonetic Alphabet is represented by aspirated sound symbol above non-aspirated sound letter symbol. After mastering this rule, these 12 international phonetic symbols will be easy to master.

There are as many as 39 vowels in Chinese Pinyin. If one corresponds to the international phonetic alphabet, it will be more troublesome and difficult to master, and it can be mastered by vowel comparison. Mandarin has ten vowels. The following is a comparison table of international phonetic symbols:

(Please refer to the link in the form)

From the perspective of single vowel, three o.i.u s are the same, and the other seven are different, but it is not difficult to master, after all, the number is limited. After mastering these single vowels, it is not difficult to further combine them into vowels. Of course, we should pay attention to some changes when a single vowel enters a vowel combination, such as A in vowel ai.a.ang.ian, A.A in international phonetic alphabet and ε in Ian.ü an ..

In order to distinguish it from ordinary letter symbols, international phonetic symbols are usually represented by square brackets [].

There are two kinds of international phonetic symbols: wide and strict. Strict phonetic transcription requires that as long as a phoneme is different, different symbols should be used, which is commonly known as phoneme phonetic transcription, and each variant in the same phoneme should be recorded with a separate symbol. A wide phonetic symbol records several phonemes with no significant difference with one symbol. Actually, it is to record phonemes, which is a phonetic transcription method. Several different phonemes belonging to the same phoneme are recorded with only one symbol. For example, there are basically no unvoiced sounds without aspirated sounds in English, and it doesn't matter whether aspirated sounds are used or not, so the aspirated sounds in general English dictionaries we come into contact with don't need additional aspirated symbols, which is why. For example, P.T.K. in person.tool.kind breathes air, and P.T.K. in spring.stand.sky doesn't breathe air, but they are all represented by [p]. [t]。 [k], which belongs to the wide record.

The phonetic symbols of combining leniency with severity have their own functions. With wide phonetic notation, most phonemes can be summarized by several symbols, which does not hinder the expression of language and is beneficial to learning and application. Strict phonetic symbols can describe the differences of phonemes in detail, which is beneficial to the analysis, description and comparison of pronunciation. Generally speaking, if it is phonetic notation and recording, you can use wide phonetic notation, if it is to analyze and compare the differences in pronunciation, you should use strict phonetic notation. When it comes to phoneme complementarity and conditional variation, each phoneme belonging to the same phoneme can only be represented and expressed by strict international phonetic symbols. For example, four phonemes belonging to /a/ phonemes and three phonemes belonging to /i/ phonemes in Putonghua must be represented by strict phonetic symbols. Without a symbol, it is difficult to explain the relevant theoretical problems clearly. Therefore, as the content of phonetics theory, it is necessary to master strict phonetic symbols in order to better understand and master the characteristics of international phonetic symbols.

Fourthly, the recognition and reading of international phonetic symbols.

The pronunciation of international phonetic symbols, that is, vowels and consonants, focuses on theoretical understanding and mastery, with emphasis on the pronunciation of all phonemes in Putonghua. Because the international phonetic alphabet involves all human voices, we can't master them all. And mastered the relevant theoretical methods, individuals can choose to study according to their own needs in the future.

1. Vowel recognition

The timbre of vowels is determined by the position of the tongue, the position of the tongue and the roundness of the lips. So the timbre of each vowel has three aspects. The so-called tongue position is the position where the tongue protrudes in the mouth when vowels are pronounced. The smaller the mouth opening, the closer the protrusion is to the maxilla, and the higher the tongue position, and vice versa. Pronunciation when the tongue is raised, that is, before the tongue, and vice versa. The roundness of lips refers to whether the lips are round or naturally spread when vowels are pronounced.

The front and back of the tongue, the height of the tongue and the roundness of the lips all affect the timbre of vowels. In other words, any change in these three aspects will change the timbre of vowels, thus producing different phonemes. For example, in Mandarin, I is the vowel of the front high round lip, and O is the vowel of the back half high round lip.

To learn vowels, we should read eight standard vowels correctly and master the pronunciation characteristics of eight standard vowels. And after mastering these vowels, other vowels can also be mastered by analogy, such as round lips, mouth opening and so on. Besides mastering the eight standard vowels, vowels should also pay attention to Y and 0 in Mandarin.

Each vowel needs to describe its pronunciation characteristics. It's better not to memorize by rote, but to memorize with the vowel tongue bitmap in the textbook, and find out how the three aspects of vowel pronunciation are shown on the tongue bitmap, so that you can remember it easily. You can try.

On the vowel tongue bitmap, the tongue position is indicated by four horizontal lines from top to bottom. For example, I is a high vowel, marked at the top, and A is a low vowel, marked at the bottom. The front and back of the tongue position are represented by two vertical lines, one on the left represents the vowel before the tongue position and the other on the right represents the vowel after the tongue position. For example, i.a is the vowel before the tongue position, marked on the left, and u.o is the vowel after the tongue position, marked on the right. Whether the lips are round or not is bounded by two vertical lines, and all vowels of non-circular lips are marked on the left side of the vertical line, such as a.α non-circular lips, which are marked on the left side of the vertical line; All vowels of the lip circle are marked on the right side of the vertical line. For example, if y.u.o is a vowel with a round lip, it is marked on the right side of the vertical line. In this way, as long as you remember the position of each phoneme on the tongue bitmap, you can easily describe its pronunciation characteristics.

2. Recognition of consonants

It is not difficult for everyone to recognize and read the consonants in Putonghua. The difficulty lies in mastering the pronunciation characteristics of each consonant in theory, describing the pronunciation characteristics of each consonant and making a comparative analysis.

The characteristics of consonants are determined by pronunciation position and pronunciation method. Therefore, to analyze the pronunciation characteristics of each consonant, we must remember the main methods, parts and methods of consonants. We mainly require to master the pronunciation of consonants in Mandarin here.

Mandarin has 22 consonants, one of which is N(ng), so it can't be a consonant. From the pronunciation position, there are six pronunciation positions of the consonants in Putonghua, which are lips, lips, teeth, before the tip of the tongue, after the tip of the tongue, before the tongue and after the tongue. These six postures can imitate the experience from the outside to the inside, and it is not difficult to master them. In terms of pronunciation methods, there are five ways to pronounce consonants in Putonghua: voiced consonants, voiced consonants, voiced consonants, nasal consonants and marginal consonants. In addition, there are aspirated consonants and unvoiced consonants. Only voiced consonants and voiced consonants can distinguish aspirated consonants from voiced consonants. According to whether the vocal cords vibrate or not, Mandarin can be divided into voiced consonants and unvoiced consonants. Five voiced sounds, the rest are unvoiced. After getting familiar with these basic knowledge, add consonants one by one, such as p. p' M stands for lips and t.t. Before the tip of the tongue.

Consonants look a lot, but they are not difficult to remember. Although vowels can be memorized skillfully without the help of tongue bitmap, there is a certain method, that is, comparative memorization. For example, three groups of stops, three groups of stops are the difference between aspirated and non-aspirated, and other characteristics are exactly the same. So this 12 consonant can be divided into six groups to remember. The difference between each group is whether it is aspirated or not, and other characteristics are exactly the same, so if you remember one, the others will be remembered naturally. For example, the pronunciation characteristics of p.p'':

P: lips, no breathing, clear and silent;

P': lips, breathing, unvoiced sound, stop sound.

This contrast is particularly easy to remember. You can compare and describe the pronunciation characteristics of other groups of phonemes below and memorize them in groups, which is easy to master.

Six vowels can be arranged according to the pronunciation part, except? Except for the voiced sound, the other five are all the same except the pronunciation. Only clear and turbid, it is not difficult to master. In this way, the remaining four are easy to master, and you can focus on memorizing them separately.

In a word, the International Phonetic Alphabet is not difficult to learn. As long as you pay full attention to it and study hard, it is not difficult to master it. Moreover, the International Phonetic Alphabet is also very useful. Pronunciation can be better mastered through international phonetic symbols. For example, many people in b.d.g.h pronounce English according to the timbre of Chinese Pinyin, but the results are all wrong. For example, the English word have is pronounced as [x] on the base of the tongue according to Chinese pronunciation. In fact, laryngeal sound [h] is three pronunciation parts behind Chinese [x]. After learning the International Phonetic Alphabet, we can consciously correct our incorrect pronunciation. Of course, it is impossible to learn well without hard work. Since this is a difficult point, we must work harder. We believe that everyone can overcome this difficulty.

Note: In order to correctly display the International Phonetic Alphabet in this article, it is necessary to install fonts related to the International Phonetic Alphabet, otherwise an error will be displayed. Please refer to the appendix on page 188 of the Linguistic Syllabus Learning Guide.