1. The earth is an irregular sphere with slightly flattened poles, with an average diameter of 637 1 m.

On the globe, the circle around the globe in the east-west direction is called the latitude line. All latitudes are circles, which can be called latitude circles; The length of latitude circle is long or short, the equator is the longest, it gradually shortens to the poles and finally reaches a point. The latitude represents the east and west directions. The equator is the longest latitude, about 40 thousand kilometers long. It is equal to the distance between the two poles and divides the earth into two hemispheres. The equator is zero latitude on the earth. The latitude north of the equator is called north latitude, and it is customary to use "n" as the code name; The latitude south of the equator, called south latitude, is customarily represented by "S".

On the earth, the line connecting the north and south poles and perpendicular to the latitude is called meridian. All the meridians are semi-circles of equal length, indicating the north-south direction. The zero meridian on the earth is called the prime meridian. It is divided into 180 from the prime meridian to the east and west. 180 in the east belongs to east longitude, and it is customary to use "e" as the code name, while 180 in the west belongs to west longitude, and it is customary to use "w" as the code name. It is customary to use the warp circle of 20 W, 160 E as the dividing line between the eastern hemisphere and the western hemisphere.

The earth keeps rotating around its axis, which is called earth rotation, and the direction of earth rotation is from west to east. It takes about 24 hours to turn around, which is one day. In this way, there is a phenomenon of alternating day and night with time difference.

5. The revolution of the earth and seasonal changes The earth revolves around the sun while rotating. The direction of the earth's revolution is also from west to east, and the time of revolution is one year. The orbital plane always keeps an angle of 66.5 with the earth axis. Because of the revolution of the earth, there are seasonal changes.

6. The division of five zones The tropics are between the Tropic of Cancer, with direct sunlight in a year, and the ground gets the most sunlight and heat, and the climate is hot all year round. The Tropic of Cancer is the dividing line between tropical and temperate zones.

The cold zone is located in the area north of the Arctic Circle and south of the Antarctic Circle, and it is extreme day and night. Polar circle is the dividing line between cold zone and temperate zone. In temperate regions between the Tropic of Cancer and the Arctic Circle, and between the Tropic of Cancer and the Antarctic Circle, there are no extreme days and nights in a year, and the solar light and heat obtained on the ground are less than those in tropical regions and more than those in cold regions, and the climate changes obviously in the four seasons.

7. Scale, legend and notes of the three elements of the map. The smaller the area drawn on the map, the more detailed the content to be represented and the larger the scale to be selected; On the contrary, the smaller the scale. On the map, it is usually "up north and down south, left west and right east"

8. Calculation method of ground height The vertical distance above sea level in a certain place on the ground is called altitude. The vertical distance from one place to another is called relative height.

9. Contour lines connect points with the same altitude, which is the contour line. Each contour line has a corresponding height value. Where the slope is steep, the contour lines are dense; Where the slope is gentle, the contour lines are sparse.

10, land and sea distribution in the world. The ocean area accounts for 7 1% of the earth, and the land area only accounts for 29%. The mainland and its nearby islands are called the mainland. The northern hemisphere is Europe and North America. most

People used to regard the Urals, ural river and the Great Caucasus as the dividing lines between Europe and Asia. The Suez Canal separates Asia from Africa. North America and South America are in the Western Hemisphere, called America. The Panama Canal is the dividing line between North America and South America. Antarctica is mainly located in the Antarctic circle, surrounded by the ocean.

1 1. land topography people divide the terrain into five basic types: mountains, plains, plateaus, basins and hills.

The altitude of mountainous areas is relatively high, generally more than 500 meters, with undulating peaks and steep slopes, and some mountainous areas are distributed in strips. Among them, the most prominent are two huge mountain systems composed of several tall mountains: one is the Alps-Himalayas mountain system across the south-central part of the Eurasian continent; The other is the Cordillera mountain system, which runs through North and South America, and consists of Rocky Mountain, Andes Mountain and other mountains.

The altitude of the plain is low, generally below 200 meters, and the ground is flat or undulating. It is often used to describe the "endless" elegance of the plain. The largest plain in the world is the Amazon Plain in South America.

The terrain in Europe and Africa is relatively simple, mainly plains and plateaus; The terrain in Asia is complex, with high terrain in the middle and low periphery, wide plateaus and mountains, and plains distributed around the mainland.

12. The forces that push the terrain change are called internal forces, such as crustal movement, volcano, earthquake, etc., which are all manifestations of the internal forces of the earth. Volcanoes and earthquakes in the world are mostly distributed in areas with active crustal activity, mainly concentrated in the Pacific Rim and the Mediterranean-Himalayan Mountains. Forces from outside the earth are called external forces, such as running water, wind, waves and glaciers.

13, weather climate weather is the atmospheric condition of a place in a short time, such as sunny, rainy, hot and cold. It is always changing. Climate is the average weather condition of a place for many years, which generally changes little.

14, the temperature changes during the day, and the temperature is sometimes high and sometimes low. The highest temperature on land usually appears in the afternoon (about14); The lowest temperature appears around sunrise. In a year, the monthly average maximum temperature in most parts of the world appears in July in the northern hemisphere and 65438+ 10 in the southern hemisphere. The monthly average minimum temperature appears in 1 in the northern hemisphere and in July in the southern hemisphere. The difference between the highest monthly average temperature and the lowest monthly average temperature in a place is called annual range.

15, the world temperature distribution, the world temperature gradually decreases from low latitude to polar regions; At the same latitude, the temperatures of the ocean and the land are different. In summer, the land temperature is high and the ocean temperature is low. Winter is the opposite. The temperature is also affected by the terrain. As the altitude increases in mountainous areas, the temperature will gradually decrease. About every increase of 100 m, the temperature will drop by 0.6℃.

16, the general law of global precipitation distribution: there is more precipitation near the equator; Less precipitation in polar regions; On both sides of the Tropic of Cancer, there is less precipitation on the west coast of the mainland and more precipitation on the east coast of the mainland; There is more precipitation in mid-latitude coastal areas and less precipitation in inland areas.

17, seasonal variation of precipitation: rainy areas throughout the year: there is more precipitation near the equator, such as Singapore; There is no rain all year round: there is little monthly precipitation in inland areas and polar regions, such as Cairo, Egypt; Rainy areas in summer: the east coast of the mainland near 300 ~ 400 north latitude, rainy in summer and rainy in winter, such as China; Rainy areas in winter: the west coast of the mainland near 300 ~ 400 north latitude, rainy in winter and rainy in summer, such as Rome, Italy; Perennial humid area: on the west coast of the mainland at 400 ~ 600 north latitude, the area affected by the westerly wind from the ocean all the year round is humid every month with moderate rainfall, such as London, England.

18, main climate types and distribution in the world

I. Main tropical climate types

1. The tropical rain forest climate is mainly distributed near the equator, with high temperature and rainy all year round.

2. The tropical grassland climate is mainly distributed in the north and south sides of the equatorial rainforest climate in Africa and South America. It is hot all year round, with obvious dry season and rainy season.

3. The tropical monsoon climate is most obvious in the Indian Peninsula and Indochina Peninsula in the south and southeast of Asia. This climate is hot all year round, and a year can also be divided into dry season and rainy season, and the wind direction changes with the seasons. In dry season, the wind blows from land to sea, and there is little rain; In the rainy season, the wind blows from the ocean to the land, and the precipitation is concentrated.

4. The tropical desert climate is mainly distributed in the west coast and inland areas of the mainland near the Tropic of Cancer. This climate is characterized by scarce precipitation, hot and dry all year round, and a large desert on the ground.

Second, the main climate types in temperate zone

1, temperate and subtropical monsoon climate, distributed in eastern Asia. Summer is hot and rainy, and winter is cold and dry. Roughly bounded by the isotherm of 65438+ 10, the average temperature in June is 0℃, with temperate monsoon climate in the north and subtropical monsoon climate in the south.

2. The Mediterranean climate is mainly located in the middle and low latitudes on the west coast of the mainland, with the most distribution along the Mediterranean coast, hot and dry in summer and mild and rainy in winter.

3. Temperate continental climate is mainly distributed in mid-latitude inland areas, with intense heat in winter, great temperature change, less precipitation and concentrated in summer.

4. The temperate maritime climate is located on the west coast of the mid-latitude continent, which is the most widely distributed in western Europe, mild and rainy, and the annual changes of temperature and precipitation are relatively small.

Knowledge points in the history books of China in grade seven.

I. Shang Yang's Reform: (7) P35-36

1, Time-With the support of Qin Xiaogong, Shang Yang carried out political reform in 356 BC.

2. Content-A: The state recognizes the private ownership of land and allows free trading;

B: Those who reward ploughing and produce more grain, cloth and silk can be exempted from corvee, and be granted titles and fields according to their military merits, and the old aristocratic privileges without military merits will be abolished;

C: establish a county system, and the monarch directly sends officials to manage it.

3. Influence: ① After Shang Yang's political reform, the feudal economy of Qin developed and the combat effectiveness of the army strengthened, gradually becoming the most prosperous feudal country in the late Warring States period.

(2) During the Warring States Period, countries gradually established a feudal system through political reform or reform.

(National reforms: Li Kui reformed in Wei; Wuqi reformed in Chu and Shang Yang reformed in Qin, the most thorough of which was Shang Yang's reform in Qin. )

Since the Spring and Autumn Period, due to the development of productive forces, some slave owners have changed into feudal landlords, and those who rent land have become farmers. Shang Yang's political reform in Qin was quite thorough. "

1) What is the purpose of Shang Yang's reform?

A: In order to establish feudal rule, develop feudal economy and make the country rich and strong.

2) Reasons for the victory of Shang Yang's political reform:

Answer: It conforms to the historical trend of feudal development; Formulate a series of effective methods; C: Dare to fight against the old forces.

Second, a hundred schools of thought contend:

1, Confucian school-founder is Confucius (the seventh P43), in the Spring and Autumn Period. His contributions in thought, education and culture;

(1) Thought-He put forward the theory of "benevolence" and advocated "loving others" and "ruling the country by virtue". His theory was used by later feudal rulers and became the orthodox thought of ruling feudal society.

(2) Education-a) Set up private schools to recruit disciples. B) He asks students to review what they have learned on time, so as to "review the past and learn new things". C) be honest in your attitude towards learning. D) Review the past and learn new things.

③ Culture-He compiled The Book of Songs, Shangshu and Chunqiu;

Confucian school-Warring States Period: Mencius (P45), who opposed the war, put forward the "senseless war in the Spring and Autumn Period", advocated the idea of "valuing the people over the monarch" and practiced "benevolent government". Oppose overfishing of fish and turtles, cut down trees on the mountain on time, and reuse natural resources. This reflects his concept of sustainable development.

2. Taoism-the founder is Laozi (the seventh P44), who was born in the Spring and Autumn Period and wrote the Tao Te Ching. Laozi believes that everything has opposites, and the opposing sides can be transformed into each other. "Misfortune is a blessing; Blessed, where is the disaster? " Have simple dialectical thinking.

3. Mohism-the founder is Mozi (P45), who advocates "universal love" and "non-aggression".

4. Legalists-represented by Han Fei (P46 VII) in the Warring States Period, advocated reform and the rule of law; Advocating the establishment of a feudal country with absolute monarchy and centralization. The book is Han Feizi.

Example: Material "What you know is what you know, and what you don't know is what you don't know" and "Where there are three people, there must be a teacher"

1) Who said that? A: It's Confucius.

2) The founder of what school? A: It's Confucianism.

3) What does he advocate politically? What's the impact? A: He put forward the theory of "benevolence" and advocated "loving others" and "ruling the country by virtue". His theory was used by later feudal rulers and became the orthodox thought of ruling feudal society.

4) What contribution has it made to culture? A: The Book of Songs, Shangshu and Chunqiu are all compiled.

Example: Material: "My hard teeth are long gone, but my soft tongue is still there!"

Whose idea does (1) reflect? What do you mean? What idea does it embody?

A: It embodies Lao Tzu's thoughts. It means that hard things are not necessarily strong, but soft can overcome hard, which embodies his simple and dialectical thought.

(2) Is this idea useful in real social life? If you find it useful, can you give an example?

A: I think it is useful. In the war of liberation, the Kuomintang army of the People's Liberation Army was finally defeated.

Three. Establishment of centralization in Qin Dynasty: (7) From 230 BC to 22 BC1year, Ying Zheng, king of Qin, destroyed six countries and established the first unified centralized feudal country in China history-Qin Dynasty.

1, the supreme ruler is called the emperor, and the emperor has all power.

2. The central government has set up official positions such as Prime Minister, Imperial Advisor and Qiu. The prime minister assisted the emperor in handling the political affairs of the whole country, the imperial envoy was responsible for supervising officials, and Qiu was in charge of the military.

3. At the local level, adopting the suggestion of Li Si, the whole country is divided into 36 counties, with counties under them. The county system was used by later feudal dynasties for a long time.

Iv. 1, Qin Shihuang's measures to consolidate reunification: (7 P5 1-52-53)

(A) politics-the establishment of feudal autocracy.

(2) Economy-After the reunification of Qin Dynasty, round square hole copper coins were used uniformly throughout the country; At the same time, it also unified the weights and measures;

(3) Culture-As a national unified language, Xiao Zhuan later used a simpler official script.

(D) Burning books to bury Confucianism (P52)

In order to strengthen ideological control, Qin Shihuang accepted Li Si's suggestion. Burning books and burying Confucianism caused great losses to the ancient culture of China, which stifled ideas and destroyed culture.

(5) Military-Building the Great Wall in the north and Lingqu in the south (P53)

(1) After the unification of Qin Dynasty, general Meng Tian was sent to northern expedition to Xiongnu, and the Great Wall, which started from Lintao in the west and extended to Liaodong in the east, was built.

(2) Qin Shihuang sent people to dig a Lingqu, connecting Hunan water and water, and connecting the Yangtze River and the Pearl River.

2. The Qin Dynasty's measures to consolidate unity and strengthen rule played an important role in the history of China.

1) ended feudalism since the Spring and Autumn Period and created a new unified situation. Since the unification of the Qin Dynasty, the feudal society in China for more than 2,000 years has been in a state of separatism in some periods, but unification has always been the mainstream of history.

2) The Qin Dynasty was the first unified multi-ethnic centralized country in the history of our country, and its autocratic centralized rule system existed in our country for more than 2,000 years, with far-reaching influence.

3) Qin unified writing, currency and weights and measures, which had a very important impact on China's future economic and cultural development and the maintenance of national unity.

4) Built the famous Wan Li Great Wall and Lingqu and other ancient projects, which consolidated the frontier of the motherland.

For example: What measures did the Qin Dynasty have an impact on later generations?

A: 1. Qin destroyed six countries and established the first unified centralized feudal country in China history.

The supreme ruler is called the emperor, and the emperor has all the power. 3. The county system is implemented throughout the country.

4. Unified currency, weights and measures and writing.

5. Built the Great Wall; 6. Dig a canal.

Example: The materials are "divided into 36 counties in the world, with guards, soldiers in the world, gathered in Xianyang, unified statutes, rules and regulations, trains on the same track, and books and characters consistent".

(1) Who implemented the above quotation? What measures have been taken? A: It was carried out by Qin Shihuang. The main measures are: county system, unified measurement, writing and currency.

(2) What is the purpose and function of implementing the above measures? A: The purpose is to strengthen centralization; Its function is: to consolidate unity and economic and cultural exchanges between different places.

Verb (abbreviation of verb) s evaluation of Qin Shihuang;

Merit: Qin Shihuang was a feudal emperor who made great contributions to the history of China. He followed the trend of historical development, destroyed the six countries and unified China, which ended the long-term situation of vassal separatism, was conducive to the stability of people's lives and social production, and met the common aspirations of people of all ethnic groups; He established the centralization of feudal autocracy, which had a far-reaching impact on Chinese history; Agreeing with national weights and measures, currency and writing has promoted economic and cultural exchanges and consolidated national unity; Through the unified war, the territory was expanded, and the Qin Dynasty became the first unified multi-ethnic feudal country in the history of China.

Guo: Qin Shihuang was also a feudal emperor who ruled brutally. After the establishment of the Qin Dynasty, heavy taxes, heavy servitude, corvee and harsh laws brought great pain and disaster to the people. Burning books and burying Confucianism stifled ideas and destroyed culture. In 2 10 BC, Qin Shihuang died. The following year, the peasant uprising broke out.

Compared with the merits and demerits, Qin Shihuang's merits and demerits were greater than his faults.

The intransitive verb measures for the unification of Emperor Wu of Han Dynasty: (7) P62-63

1. Politics: Accept Zhu's suggestion and issue a "decree of mercy" to weaken the power of the kingdom and strengthen centralization. (page 62)

2. Economy: the right to operate local salt and iron and the right to coin will be returned to the central government; The unified casting of five baht increased the national fiscal revenue. (page 68)

3. Thought: To accept Dong Zhongshu's suggestion of "ousting a hundred schools of thought and respecting Confucianism alone" is to regard Confucianism as the orthodox thought of feudal rule. (page 63)

4. Culture: Emperor Wu of the Han Dynasty vigorously promoted Confucian education and set up imperial academy in Chang 'an. Imperial College was the highest institution of learning in ancient China. (page 63)

5. Military: counterattack Xiongnu many times and win; Zhang Qian's mission to the Western Regions was to strengthen the ties between the Western Han Dynasty and other countries in the Western Regions. (P79、P82-83)

6. Significance: The Western Han Dynasty entered its heyday, which was also the first heyday of China's feudal era.

VII. Western Regions Collection: (VII. P77)

In 60 BC, the Western Han government set up the Western Regions Metropolitan Government to manage the affairs of the Western Regions, which was the beginning of the central government's official possession of the Western Regions. This shows that Xinjiang is a part of China territory in history.

Eight, the Silk Road: (7 P78)

1. Land: from Chang 'an to the west, through Hexi Corridor, now Xinjiang, to West Asia, and then from West Asia to Europe. (Walnuts, alfalfa, pomegranate and grapes from the western regions were introduced)

2. Sea: Depart from Guangdong Port and reach the southern tip of Indian Peninsula and Sri Lanka Island as far as possible.

3. Function: Communication between China and the West, and promotion of economic and cultural exchanges between China and Central Asia, West Asia and Europe.

4. Historical value: the industriousness, wisdom and creative spirit of the working people in ancient China; Historical testimony of Sino-Western friendship and material and cultural exchanges; It is conducive to carrying forward our national culture and enhancing national cohesion and pride; Conducive to the development of tourism and archaeological work.

Nine, papermaking: (seven P8 1)

1, China was the first country in the world to invent paper-hemp paper in the early Western Han Dynasty.

2. In the Eastern Han Dynasty, Cai Lun used bark, rags, hemp heads and old fishing nets as raw materials to improve papermaking, which was called "Cai Hou Paper". Promoted the exchange and spread of culture.

Zhang Heng (Eastern Han Dynasty) Seismograph: The world's earliest instrument for determining earthquake orientation (P82)

Xi。 Sima Qian and Historical Records: (7 Volume I P88)

He lived in the period of Emperor Wu of the Han Dynasty and was a great historian in ancient China. Historical Records is the first biographical general history in China, which records the history from Huangdi to Emperor Wudi of the Han Dynasty and establishes the biographical style. It is not only a historical work, but also a literary work.

Example: The material "People are inherently mortal, either heavier than Mount Tai or lighter than a feather"

1) Who said that? In what book? A: Sima Qian; Historical records.

2) Which dynasty did he live in? What does this sentence mean? A: Western Han Dynasty. This sentence is: of course, everyone will die, but some die heavier than Mount Tai, and some die lighter than a feather.

3) What is the content of this book? A: It tells the history from the Yellow Emperor to the Emperor Wu of the Han Dynasty.

4) What is the status of this book? A: Historical Records is China's first biographical general history.

5) How does Lu Xun evaluate this book? A: "Historians sing a swan song, and Li Sao has no rhyme."

Twelve. Battle of Red Cliffs: (7) P95-96.

In 208, the joint forces of Sun Quan and Liu Bei defeated Cao Cao with fewer victories. After Battle of Red Cliffs, Cao Cao returned to the north and dared not go south easily. Since then, the situation of the Three Kingdoms has been established.

Example: Material 1: "Cao Cao led a great army south to destroy Sun Quan and Liu Bei and unify the world. Sun and Liu Lianhe got up and used their weaknesses in water fighting and chain warships to defeat them with fire. "

Material 2: Quote Su Shi's Niannujiao? Chibi nostalgia "

1) describes which famous battle in the history of China? A: Battle of Red Cliffs in 2008.

2) What did you learn from their success or failure? Pride will lead to failure; Unity is strength; clear and thorough understanding of both parties gurantees a win in game, competition or war ...

3) Where should I look for more information about this activity?

13, 230, Sun Quan sent general Wei Wen to Yizhou, which strengthened the connection between the mainland and Taiwan Province Province. (Grade 7 P98)

(This is the earliest record between Taiwan Province Province and the mainland. )

Fourteen Emperor Xiaowen's Reform in the Northern Wei Dynasty: (7) P 107

1. Background: Northern unification and great ethnic integration.

2. Political power: Xianbei people established the Northern Wei Dynasty, made Pingcheng its capital, and Emperor Xiaowen moved to Luoyang.

3, reform-China policy content:

Namely: speaking Chinese, changing Chinese surname, wearing Chinese clothes, getting married in Chinese, using Chinese laws and learning Chinese customs.

4. Function: It has accelerated the feudalization process of northern minorities, promoted the economic development of the north and promoted national integration.

15. Mathematical achievements: (VII) P 1 10) Zu Chongzhi (Southern Dynasties): It was the first time in the world that the value of pi was accurate to the seventh place after the decimal point, nearly 1000 years earlier than that in Europe.

Knowledge points in the second volume of the history of China in grade seven

I. Digging the Grand Canal (7 P3-4) "It is a good thing to have fishermen in Zhuo Jun County in the north and Du Zhi in the south!"

The Grand Canal dug during the reign of Yang Di in Sui Dynasty was the most important contribution of Sui Dynasty to later generations.

1. Objective: To strengthen the north-south traffic and consolidate the rule of the Sui Dynasty over the whole country.

2. Excavation time: 605-6 10 year.

3. The Grand Canal is centered on Luoyang, with Zhuo Jun in the north and Yuhang in the south; Excavate Yongji Canal, Tongji Canal, Hangou and Jiangnan, connecting Haihe River, Yellow River, Huaihe River, Yangtze River and Qiantang River, with a total length of more than 2,000 kilometers. (via Yangzhou, Changzhou, Wuxi and Suzhou, Jiangsu)

4. Function: Its opening has greatly promoted economic exchanges between North and South.

5. Status: It is the longest canal in the ancient world.

Evaluation of the excavation of the Grand Canal: The Grand Canal has not only become a political, economic and cultural link between the North and the South, but also a hub for communicating the "Silk Road" in the inland of Asia and the "Silk Road" at sea. At the same time, the navigation of the canal also promoted the development of towns and industries in coastal areas. However, Yang Di abused people's power, which also caused people's suffering. Generally speaking, digging the Grand Canal is a great contribution of the Sui Dynasty to the history of China.

Second, "The Rule of Zhenguan" (seven times to P7) "The boat is more than a gentleman, and the water is more than Li Shu. Water can carry a boat or overturn it. " "People can dress up their clothes with copper as a mirror; Take people as a mirror and you can know the gains and losses. "

During the period of Emperor Taizong, the politics was relatively clear, the economy developed and the national strength gradually became stronger. Because the title of Emperor Taizong was Zhenguan, the rule at that time was called "Zhenguan rule" in history.

The emergence of "Zhenguan rule" is because:

(1) Politically, Emperor Taizong learned the lessons of the demise of the Sui Dynasty, was good at employing people and being good at coachable, and inherited and developed the three provinces and six departments system of the Sui Dynasty;

(2) Culturally, develop imperial examinations and attach importance to education; (3) Economically, develop production in a frivolous and generous way.

(Fang, Du Ruhui,)

Three. Golden age of kaiyuan (P 10)

In the early days of Emperor Xuanzong's rule, politics was relatively stable and economy was prosperous. When the Tang Dynasty entered its heyday, China society showed unprecedented prosperity. The year of Xuanzong in Tang Dynasty is called Kaiyuan, and the history is called "the prosperous time of Kaiyuan".

The reasons for the prosperity of Kaiyuan are as follows: in the early years of Emperor Xuanzong of Tang Dynasty, ① talents were appointed; (2) Rectify official management; ③ Attach importance to agricultural production; (4) a united and stable social environment and working people who live and work in peace and contentment.

Respondent: Romantic virtue.