Middle Ages (Middle Ages; 476 ~ 1453)

The Middle Ages (about 476 AD ~ AD 1453) is an era in European history (mainly in Western Europe), from the end of the Western Roman Empire (AD 476) to the period of the rise of capitalism after the Renaissance (AD 1453). The word "Middle Ages" was used by humanists in the late15th century. Europe in this period did not have a strong regime to rule. Feudal separatism brought frequent wars, which led to the stagnation of science and technology and productivity, and people lived in hopeless pain. Therefore, the Middle Ages or early Middle Ages are generally called "dark ages" in Europe and America. Traditionally, it is considered as a period of relatively slow development in the history of European civilization.

Medieval history, also known as medieval history, refers to the period from the demise of the Western Roman Empire in 476 to the outbreak of the British bourgeois revolution in 1640. The formation, development and disintegration of feudal system is the main line of European history in this period. However, the development of feudal society in the world is unbalanced. When Western Europe just entered the feudal society in the 5th century, China had already completed the feudal social course of about 1000 years.

Another view is that until the 9th century, according to St. Augustine's view, most ancient scholars believed that human beings were in the sixth and last stage of history, that is, the "doomsday" predicted by the Bible in Revelation, so it had a dark meaning. Historians generally believe that the term "the dark ages of the Middle Ages" was invented by Petrarch, a humanist of the Italian Renaissance in the14th century. He traveled around Europe, rediscovering and publishing classic Latin and Greek works, aiming at restoring Roman classical Latin language, art and culture. He thinks that the changes and events since the fall of Rome in 4 10 A.D. are not worth studying. Humanists look at history not according to Augustine's religious terms, but according to social (academic) terms, that is, through classical culture, literature and art; Therefore, humanists call this 900-year period of classical culture stagnation the "dark period".

Petrarch divided European history into two stages: one was the period of ancient Rome and ancient Greece; The second is the "dark period". Humanists also believe that one day the Roman Empire will rise again and restore the purity of classical culture. At the end of 14 and the beginning of 15, humanists believed that a modern era had begun, so logically speaking, a "Middle Ages" had been formed.

Therefore, starting from humanists, historians also hold negative views on "the dark ages" and "the Middle Ages". In the reformation of Protestants in16th century and17th century, Protestants also wrote the corruption of Catholicism into this history. In response to Protestants' accusations, Catholic reformers also gave the opposite picture to the "dark period": a period of social and religious harmony, which was not dark at all. As for the "dark period", many negative views in modern times come from the works of Kant and Voltaire in the Enlightenment in 17 and 18 century.

/kloc-at the beginning of the 0/9th century, the romantic movement changed this one-sided negative thinking tendency about the "dark period". It gives a peaceful picture: the harmony between society and environment is rooted in the life of nature; At the same time, it also responded to the rationalism in the Enlightenment that rationality completely surpassed sensibility, and the environmental damage and pollution caused by the rising industrial revolution. Through the customs and historical events displayed, we can still see the romantic views about the "dark period" in some cultural activities and festivals celebrating that period today.

In the second half of the19th century after the Romantic Movement, archaeology has made great progress, and many historical documents and cultural relics unknown to predecessors have been excavated and sorted out. The discovery of Sutton Hu Cave 1939 around 625 A.D. and the research of Charles H. haskins, a famous scholar in medieval studies, make "dark period" no longer seem to be an appropriate word. After the middle of the 20th century, the word "dark period" gradually disappeared from the literature of English-speaking professional scholars.

Charlie Haskin wrote: "The continuity of history excludes the possibility of great differences between the following two historical periods-the Middle Ages and the Renaissance. Modern research shows that the Middle Ages were not as dark and stagnant as once thought. The Renaissance was neither so bright nor so sudden. Before the Italian Renaissance, there was a similar movement, although it was not so extensive.

So the original "Dark Ages" was changed to refer to the European history from 4 10 (or 455) to 754 (or 800).

history

With the destruction of the Western Roman Empire by the Germans, a number of barbarian countries appeared one after another. Lumbard, Odyak, Burgundy, Vandal Alain, Eastern Gothic, Visigoth, Anglo-Saxon and other kingdoms were established successively. There are wars between kingdoms, among which Anglo-Saxon and Frankish kingdoms have existed for a long time.

As a branch of the Germans, the Franks defeated the Gaul army in 486, and Clovis established the rule of the Mei Tam dynasty. Clovis, by uniting with the Vatican, occupied all the territory of the Roman Empire in Gaul. With the continuous expansion of the Frankish kingdom, in the middle of the 6th century, it conquered some tribes in Burgundy, Thuringia, Bavaria and Saxony, became the most powerful country in Western Europe at that time, and established a feudal manor system. In 75 1 year, the palace gnome Paiping became the king of Franks and established the Carolingian dynasty. During Charlemagne's reign, the national strength reached its peak, including the annexation of Lombardy, the occupation of the Spanish border area, the occupation of eastern Bavaria and the conquest of awar Khan. Most of the land in western Europe became the territory of the Frankish kingdom. After Charlemagne's death, the Frankish kingdom was divided by the war between brothers. In August, 843, treaty of verdun signed the agreement, which was divided into West Frankish Kingdom, East Frankish Kingdom and Italian Kingdom. The territory of modern France, Germany and Italy is based on this treaty.

Another Germanic branch, the Angles, Saxons and Jutes, entered the British Isles in the middle of the 5th century. Seven kingdoms were formed at the end of the 6th century and the beginning of the 7th century, which was called the Seven Kingdoms Period in British history. In 829, the kingdom of Wessex annexed six other kingdoms, and England was born. 1066, William, Duke of Normandy, France, claimed to inherit the throne by blood. After being rejected, he seized the British throne by force, and was called "William the Conqueror" (that is, William I), and established the Normandy Dynasty, but it also caused the root of the Hundred Years' War in the future. During the reign of Henry I (1100 ~1135), with the strengthening of kingship, social contradictions intensified. 12 15 John (Landless) was forced to sign the Magna Carta of Freedom. 1264 during the civil war, Henry III was captured by Simon de montfort. 1265, montfort called the parliament, which became the beginning of the British parliament. From 1343, the parliament was divided into an upper house composed of nobles and a lower house representing knights and citizens, and a parliamentary monarchy was established. At the same time, the western Frankish kingdom evolved into the French kingdom, and the kingship was strengthened. The Vatican was forced to move to avignon in the south of France, held three-level meetings from top to bottom (the first level was the high priest, the second level was the aristocrat, and the third level was the wealthy citizen), and also formed a parliamentary monarchy.

The local government of the East Frankish Kingdom, the predecessor of Germany, was very strong. 9 1 1 After the Carolingian dynasty, the king was elected by local dignitaries, but he was more honorary, and his rights were equal to those of local governors. This feature is considered by historians to be the reason why it is keen on external expansion. In 95 1 year, Otto I led troops to occupy Lumbard, and then Otto II marched into Rome. 1 155, Frederick I captured Milan, and the Pope crowned it as the Holy Roman Empire. In its heyday, the territory included all of Germany, central and northern Italy, Sicily, Czech Republic, Switzerland, Estonia and Prussia. In Frederick I, he was defeated by the resistance of 15 city (Lombardy League). Frederick I drowned in the Third Crusade and the occupied area became independent.

culture

Italy has never been unified. In order to maintain his independent status, the Pope established a papal state and forged the document of "Constantine Gift", claiming that Constantine the Great gave Rome, Rutland Palace and other places to the Pope. The church is very strict and controls the culture and education in western Europe. Priests can't get married, advocate abstinence, and ask people to give everything to God in order to go to heaven after death. On the other hand, the sale of clergy is very serious. We advocate scholasticism such as trinity and original sin theory, strictly control the spread of scientific ideas, set up inquisition to punish heresy, and school education also serves theology. During the period of Pope Gregory I (590 ~604), ancient Roman libraries were also set on fire.

After the Reformation in Germany, the Renaissance came into being in Italy and spread to many European countries. There are many philosophers, writers, artists and scientists, such as Dante, Boccaccio, Leonardo da Vinci, Michelangelo, Raphael, Machiavelli, Shakespeare, Cervantes, Copernicus, Bruno, Galileo, Kepler, Harvey, Francis Bacon and so on.

economy

The economy in the Middle Ages was mainly a feudal manor-style natural economy. A number of commercial cities have emerged: Paris, Lyon, Daulnay, Marseille, Cologne, Trier, Strasbourg, Hamburg, Venice, Genoa, etc., forming a trade zone centered on the Mediterranean. /kloc-After the 0/6th century, the workshop handicraft industry rose. First in Florence, then in Flanders, the enclosure movement made Britain develop rapidly. This economic model accelerated trade, which led to the great geographical discovery and the discovery of the new American continent. Workshop handicrafts have also made a leap in weapons of war. Cannons and muskets gradually replaced the knight's sword, and the ancient castle lost its defense ability. Workshop handicraft industry gave birth to capitalist economy. In the middle and late Middle Ages, various handicrafts gradually developed from individual operation to the establishment of trade unions, and the concept of "specialty" sprouted during this period.

Historical background of medieval Europe

Feudalism and vassal fiefs

The typical social system in the Middle Ages can be summarized in the following sentence: the complex system formed by the system of princes and vassals and serfdom.

/kloc-In the 8th century, Montesquieu's On the System of Law made a profound analysis of the feudal system, fief system and serfdom in the Middle Ages. /kloc-in the 0/9th century, people inherited the previous enlightenment thought, and the school of historical law and the school of historical economics rose to analyze various feudal systems of that era; At the beginning of the 20th century, scholars believed that feudalism should be understood not from the economic perspective, but from the political and legal perspectives. Taking Gan Shaofu's book Feudalism as the representative, this paper focuses on the personal attachment, hierarchy and knighthood system of princes and ministers in the Middle Ages.

Generally speaking, the main characteristics of the institutional relationship in the Middle Ages are: hierarchical enfeoffment system-according to this law, feudalism means economic obedience and military loyalty to superiors, which is related to the relationship between social protection and protection at that time. When barbarians first entered this country, the public system established by the splendid Roman Empire also died out, and the new system has not yet been formed. People cannot protect their personal rights. For example, farmers will seek protection on their own, thus forming.

In fact, the foundation of conferring the title of monarch and minister is the relationship between protection and protection plus the system of pro-soldiers.

Qin Bing system actually includes loyalty, which is both a protective relationship and a means of stability. This kind of monarch and vassal, not at the expense of freedom, went from the lower level to the upper level, no longer aiming at satisfying survival, but formed a fixed level of means, and the size of vassal was closely related to the honor of nobles.

The most important thing in the system of conferring monarch and minister is fief. At first, there was no one-to-one correspondence between vassals and fiefs. Governors have the obligation to protect their survival. At first, it was expressed by inviting governors to go home for a banquet or rewarding them in kind. However, with the expansion of the war, this kind of reward began to be unsustainable, the number of vassals needed to achieve a monarch increased, and the reward method began to change, in order to give the people the corresponding land to survive, as a means to maintain the relationship between the two sides, it quickly became popular. The land that was originally enfeoffed was called "fief", which existed in the period of Mai Tam; During the period of Charles Martel, due to the war with Arabia, a large number of vassals were established. At the same time, "fiefs" began to become fiefs, and the conditions for obtaining fiefs were gradually fixed, with military obligations as the main theme.

Theoretically, the monarch owns the land, while the vassal only has the right to use it and must return it after death. However, the reality is quite different. Feudal monarchs rarely really recovered their land. Due to the multi-level enfeoffment system, the relationship between princes and monarchs is complicated and the land is scattered. Feudal monarchs mainly recovered land, and it was easy to form a war relationship. Therefore, land closure actually becomes inheritable, transferable and tradable private property.

In the middle ages, once the relationship between monarch and minister was formed, the two sides formed a kind of obligation relationship.

The first is the obligation of governors to the monarch.

Negative obligation is an obligation that can be guaranteed without doing anything. Mainly: harmless, that is, it can't hurt Feng Jun's body; Security, to ensure the safety of the monarch, can not neglect defense, can not abandon responsibility; Respect and integrity, and you can't do anything that harms the reputation of the monarch in judicial trials; Useful, should not hurt Feng Jun in property relations; Easy, can not set obstacles, so that Feng Jun can easily complete the task; If feasible, let Feng Jun complete the task that can be completed.

Second, positive obligations. Including: military service, as a vassal, should be called to perform military tasks at any time, and the core task is mainly defense work, which should be maintained until the enemy retreats; Offensive attacks can only serve for about 40 days at a time. All military equipment belongs to the princes. Financial aid includes a wide range of contents, such as giving financial aid (ransom) when the monarch meets an emergency, knighthood for the monarch's children, ostentation and extravagance expenses for marriage, and expenses for the monarch's travel. Suggest, put forward all kinds of opinions, let the monarch make the most reasonable judgment, and ask everything one by one.

The monarch has the obligation to protect and maintain the princes.

One is protection, that is, if the princes are in danger, the monarch must come forward to rescue them; Or the princes are caught in a lawsuit, and you mainly seek justice for the princes in court.

Second, maintenance is to maintain the livelihood of the vassals, so land closure has become the mainstream of this obligation.

The inequality in this system is very obvious. But at that time, from bottom to top, this inequality was widespread: due to the need of personal survival and security and the lack of legal system at that time, the Middle Ages were doomed to maintain social stability only in this way. Moreover, the economic relations in the Middle Ages were destined to obtain land only by attachment, so people were willing to join this system and become a link in the social "chain". The inequality and freedom that form this concept have nothing to do with fate or people's quality of life, because most people agree with this relationship; On the contrary, freedom and equality made people unable to survive in the Middle Ages.

And to form this relationship, but also through various ceremonies, of which the most commonly used and most obvious are three:

First, the ceremony of putting your hands together is to put your hands in the hands of the monarch, indicating that you are willing to attach yourself to the monarch and become his courtiers.

Second, the kissing ceremony.

Third, taking an oath, that is, taking an oath by imitating church rituals, indicates the sacredness of forming a relationship.

The enfeoffment system is a substitute for political, economic and legal systems to a certain extent, which makes the society a whole with a certain order and forms a so-called "chain" of responsibility from top to bottom. Because of loyalty and economic ties, this relationship is very close. Although it will lead to the decentralization of rights, it does bring stability to the local area, and form a very orderly society by cooperating with the production system of the manor.

Since the mid-20th century, people began to study the feudal system more extensively. Marc Bloch, a famous figure, believed that the feudal system in the Middle Ages should be understood at two levels:

First, the enfeoffment system

Second, the operation of economic form after the restoration of kingship

Scholars in China and the Soviet Union study this feudal system as an economic system and associate it with slavery and exploitation. Although these views are wrong at present, it can also be seen that:

First, the production purpose of feudalism: only compared with capitalism, the meaning of "feudalism" is modernized (in fact, this statement is not desirable), and it is believed that its purpose lies in feudal land rent, which is in direct proportion to capitalist profits; It is believed that this purpose is to extract surplus labor and surplus products, only by means of land rent; If the above two are combined, it is the surplus labor of feudal land rent.

Second, the driving force of feudal production: the labor of capital workers has nothing to do with the scale of production, but it is exactly related to the situation in the feudal system: the income in the manor is fixed, the income of farmers is variable, and the land rent remains unchanged for a long time, that is, in order to get more income outside the land rent, this is the driving force of feudal production. In slavery and capitalism, the means of production were all owned by the owners, while in the feudal system of the Middle Ages, there was no complete private property.

Third, the rent rate: in fact, if the rent rate increases, it means exploitation; However, research shows that the rent rate in the Middle Ages remained basically unchanged, and it is difficult to find evidence to support "exploitation".

Manor article

In the Middle Ages, manor was not an ideal economic model, its economic form was very closed, people's living standard was only for survival, and it was a production unit with slow progress. All these were related to the disorder at that time: after the Germans overthrew the Roman Empire, there was no sound system to replace it; Moreover, wars between barbarian tribes continued, and a complete and mature ruling system was not formed, so at that time, the king adopted the way of giving rewards to safeguard his self-power:

First, the seized property is distributed to individuals in strict accordance with the equal distribution system.

Secondly, the granting of land as a legal person has formed a person's large real estate, and the reward is not completed at the first level, but can be given at different levels, forming a German real estate on the Roman artificial real estate; These unpaid remuneration, together with the real estate in rural Rome, formed a large real estate in which the land in western Europe was basically included. In Roman times, real estate was private, but at this time, real estate was artificially divided and contained different components: one was private land owned by real estate owners, and the other was land for cultivation.

This institutional change constitutes the foundation of manor, and the difference between manor and large real estate is that it does not deprive the right to cultivate land.

At the same time, the nature of the land has also changed. Manor has become both an economic activity unit and an administrative unit integrating politics, law and criminal (including economy), which interferes with each other, thus forming the division basis after the Middle Ages: the manor owner is equal to the manor owner, his sovereignty and land are divided, and the subcontractor is only responsible for the subcontractor at the next higher level, which leads to the dispersion of the sovereignty of the medieval king.

As far as the composition of manor land is concerned, it can be roughly divided into the following four parts:

First, the private land of the Lord.

Second, farmers' land.

Third, the grassland for grazing.

Fourth, provide forest land for planting wood.

As far as manor buildings are concerned, they can be roughly divided into three types:

First, it is a luxurious manor house located in a high place, but it is not a castle that most people think.

Second, the humble farmhouse.

Third, public facilities, including churches, water mills (owned by manor owners) and craftsmen's warehouses.

The heavy burden of farmers in the Middle Ages is also extremely rare: the rent in kind, the labor rent, the cost of using public facilities, the marriage tax that must be paid when getting married (especially for people outside the manor, and the fine), the inheritance tax, and the living expenses of the manor owner.

From the above situation, it is not difficult for us to know that the economic life of medieval manor was very fragile, and the scope of farmers' life was relatively narrow, and problems would arise if there was a slight sign of trouble. Famine and plague were more common in that period. But most people are used to this lifestyle and state. This manor life lasted for a long time in the Middle Ages and was not broken until the late Middle Ages.

Knight article

Medieval knights, especially Teutonic knights, were a very developed class.

At first, knights were developed from cavalry, and the prerequisite was that only cavalry replaced infantry could the knight class rise. The first time the cavalry showed their talents, it was undoubtedly the battle in which the Germans defeated East Rome, which gave the cavalry an advantage. However, knight is not equal to cavalry in absolute sense. Knights are actually the product of bringing military power into feudal system in western Europe. At first, due to the large number of freemen, compulsory military service was implemented. However, with the annexation of land, the large-scale real estate system has greatly reduced the number of freemen, making it difficult to implement compulsory military service, and the range of people who can be enlisted in the army is getting narrower and narrower. Freemen can't afford military equipment, so knights began to become the privileges of lords.

In order to ensure a considerable number of soldiers, the upper class at that time took some measures, that is, combining military service with economic resources, which was a common feudal system in the Middle Ages. This system began in the period of Charles Martel in the Frankish Kingdom. Military service changed from compulsory system to fief system, so the army of feudal lords became the foundation of the national army. This system is stable and firm, transforming cavalry from dispersed state into knight class, that is, knight equals cavalry plus land ownership.

In the peaceful period after 12 ~ 13 century, the knight's military can only begin to weaken, improve its position in the economic and political fields, and gradually merge with the nobility. At that time, the cultivation of knights began from birth, which was a very long process: he was baptized under the supervision of his father at birth and raised by a wet nurse until he was 7 years old, and he could not live with his family. After I was 7 years old, I really embarked on the road of chivalry. I left my residence, went to a noble family with a higher status than mine, and began to learn the necessary knowledge of becoming a knight, such as eagle hunting, various religious knowledge and etiquette. From the age of 14, he was a personal attendant of the nobility, which was of a ceremonial nature, and he could learn a lot from it until he grew up at the age of 2 1.

2 1 year-old, you must go through a special ceremony to leave the Lord family and become an independent knight. The ceremony was grand, and this canonization ceremony was regarded as a continuation or deformation of the past rite of passage: on the first day, there were two ceremonies, bathing and praying, to purify the body and soul. Officially decorated the next day: the horse was collected and a symbolic race was held, which became the external symbol of the knight.

Therefore, the knights at that time had fixed characteristics and were specifically called "soldiers".

The relationship between medieval knights and the church is a major feature of medieval knights, and it is also a combination of barbarism and theory.

At first, the two sides were antagonistic, because the knight represented the destroyed side and * * * represented the destroyed Roman Empire; Knights are very martial and characterized by looting, and the target of looting is often directed at the church. Both sides have conflicts in theory and practice. * * * advocates peace, and knights take pleasure in war.

There are two main factors that lead to the combination of the two: one is the secularization of the church. Because of its large amount of land, the church became the largest feudal landlord in western Europe. At that time, a small church could own more than 1000 manors. In order to protect its own property and interests, the church began to dabble in secular things, from dependence on the king to domination of the king, which also shifted the object of knight protection. As Christians, knights can't invade the church, and the church has changed from an institution opposed to knights to an institution protected by knights. The second point is that the knight himself has changed. Because entering the church was the way for aristocratic descendants to gain social status at that time, knights received religious education from an early age, followed God's instructions and chose appropriate behaviors, and cultivated their belief in God from an early age. In addition, knights often pray for God's blessing when they are in trouble. Some knights turned to monasticism because the war was too cruel, and some knights survived because they needed spiritual comfort and absolute belief.

Therefore, the codes of conduct of many churches have become the rules of knights, and knights have become soldiers of God. At that time, the principle of knights was mainly: to be a devout Christian. 12 ~ 13 century later, piety became the first criterion, and belief in * * * was both a quality and a qualification, which stipulated and bound knights. Knight's equipment also represents doctrine, sword is the symbol of cross religion, shield represents the duty of protecting the church, and double-edged sword represents the just side and kills the enemy. Believing in God, knights must also pray and repent their crimes with practical actions. We must be the guardians of the church. The secular state is God's room on earth, and the king is the representative of the room. Knights protect the king not only to protect God, but also to protect the church.

The concept of love of medieval knights also has its uniqueness, which is out of tune with the concept of modern people and can be said to be unique.

At that time, marriage was based on property, and knights pursued love, but they were all ladies, not for marriage. This idea became the theme advocated in the late Middle Ages. Bards sang poems everywhere, which had a great influence on Europe in the future. Moreover, this view of love had a certain social foundation at that time.

In peacetime, the knight's military can only be weakened, and he began to live in the noble court, paying attention to etiquette and manners rather than force. Especially after the Crusade, most men went out to fight, and worldly things fell on women, and women's ability and status were improved. The hostess often plays an important role in the court and occupies a lofty position, and becomes the object of worship of warriors who come to attach themselves. Moreover, knights grew up in aristocratic families, and many educations were arranged by the hostess, which virtually constituted a kind of mother worship. This is also a supplement to the loveless marriage at that time. Knights marry for profit. In order to meet spiritual needs and find spiritual support beyond normal marriage, the woman they worship naturally becomes the object of their pursuit. This kind of love has many concepts different from other times: it contains the concept of loyalty, but does not pursue equality; And not for the purpose of marriage, it doesn't matter if you experience difficulties; This is also an opportunity for moral improvement, and the feudal vassal relationship is reflected in obedience in love. In people's minds at that time, a lady was a typical woman of that period. If a rude knight is favored, he can become educated, which conforms to the norms of high society and the requirements of peacetime.

Noble article

The Middle Ages was a typical period of aristocratic rule. The nobility maintained the ruling class structure. No matter officials or non-officials, they all have the right to rule, and their composition is complex and constantly changes with the pre-,mid-and post-period.

In the early days, people didn't pay attention to genealogy, because it was a period when the nation and Rome were mixed, and they paid attention to the existing power and land; In the middle period, the society was basically stereotyped, and people began to pay attention to genealogy, title and origin. At this time, the aristocratic group also formed and became a closed group. In the later period, due to the developed commodity economy and the increase in the flow of social factors, the lower classes began to join the ranks of nobles, and at the same time, some ruined nobles with titles but no land appeared.

12 and 13 centuries later, with the integration of nobles and knights, an obvious hierarchy began to form between nobles. To be a nobleman, you must be a knight, with obvious hierarchy and collectivity. Knights must be descendants of knights. This gap and the expansion of other class groups make the nobility obviously closed, and different registrations are recognized within the nobility, showing different powers:

Duke, given the title of tribal leader, is the ruler of a place and still has politics, economy, law and rights. The actions of these people often determine the fate of many people, and they only join in name.

Marquis, mostly border chiefs, are appointed by the state as chiefs in border areas and are responsible for the rule of several counties. Most of these people come from large local families, are semi-independent forces, and can appoint local officials.

Earl is a local chief executive, such as a county magistrate, who is appointed by the king and becomes semi-independent after a long time. The duke's trustee, also known as the count, has great power. Especially when representing the duke, the defenders of social order often become rulers, such as the Earl of Anjou, who established the Anjou Dynasty in Britain, and the Earl of Champagne in France.

The above three kinds of aristocrats are all senior aristocrats, and they all have a large number of territories, and they can exercise independent or semi-independent rule.

Viscount, originally an attendant or assistant of a high-ranking aristocrat, took him to handle affairs and judicial cases. Senior nobles could exercise their rights independently without being present, and later began to build castles to form a small ruling center.

Barons are mostly knight leaders, who are connected with the army and obtain land from the king on the condition of military service to support the land. A baron has at least 40 ~ 50 knight collars (a knight collar refers to the land area needed to support a knight).

The characteristics of nobility are also reflected in other aspects of social life.

Marriage and family status: the marriage of the nobles in the Middle Ages was a political marriage, and the purpose of aristocratic marriage was to continue the descendants and strengthen the ties between aristocratic families. A marriage can form an alliance and resolve conflicts. Therefore, the eldest son of the nobility considered political factors more, and the second son who had no inheritance rights considered economic interests, so it became a custom to pursue widows at that time. Because there was no free love in the Middle Ages, marriages were arranged by parents and families, so although women's status was low at that time, ladies were the exception. They all have dual roles. On the one hand, a good wife and mother have the responsibility to take care of each other and children. On the other hand, it is a romantic model, becoming the object pursued by knights and worshiping ideals; They bring the ideals of purity, nobility and love. At that time, the aristocratic family was an expanded family, including servants, servants and dependents, that is, poor relatives, adoptive parents and knights. If a person can live in a noble family for one year and one day, he can become a full member of this family, so there are many things in the noble castle. At that time, the family was centered on patriarchy, but the foster care system at that time made the feelings between children and their biological parents very weak.

Nobles belonged to the upper class in medieval society, so they had their own characteristics in all aspects. For example, aristocrats only contact aristocrats, and their living customs and contacts are fixed. In a closed group, everyone has a sense of nobility, which is established by external laws, so that the class is fixed and forms a clear boundary with other classes.

I listed the historical background of medieval Europe from different angles. I hope it helps you.