1, missionary
Missionaries played a very important role in the wave of western learning spreading eastward in the late Ming and early Qing dynasties. At that time, missionaries, mainly Jesuits (later Franciscans, Dominicans and other priests), while trying to introduce Catholicism into China, introduced western scientific and academic ideas and translated a large number of books related to Western learning. Among them, Matteo Ricci, Julio Aleni, Tang Ruowang and others played an important role.
/kloc-in the 9th century, western learning spread to the east, Protestant priests began to enter China, and Catholic priests also traveled around the world with the opening of ports. They founded missionary schools and hospitals, publishing houses, periodicals and translated a large number of books. It has made great contributions to the spread of western learning to the east.
2. Others from western China
In addition to missionaries, many officials and explorers who came to China also became important media for the spread of Western learning to the East, such as the influence of General Gordon on China's military during the Westernization period. Hurd, who presided over the General Administration of Customs and Taxation, had an influence on the introduction of western management system, as well as the introduction of translated works and the earliest western military bands. 1, travelers, businessmen and diplomats
At the end of Ming and the beginning of Qing Dynasty, many China people went to Europe with missionaries, but they did not leave relevant words in the early stage, so it had little influence on the introduction of western culture. The earliest record is that Shou-Li Fan (1682- 1753) went to Rome with four missionaries during the Kangxi period and wrote a book "Seeing the corpse", describing the political system, architecture and customs in Europe. During the Qianlong period, Xie, a businessman, traveled around Europe and wrote A Record of the Sea, which recorded European trade, crafts, people's lives and world geography.
After the Opium War, more China people went abroad by themselves. 1840s, businessman Lin Zhen wrote about The Journey to the West and described his trip to Europe and America. Wang Tao, a famous political thinker in modern times, traveled to Europe in 1867. In 1870, he published two books, A Brief History of France and the Discipline of Popularizing Law. 1879' s trip to Japan influenced his various ideas. 1876, Li Gui, a businessman, went to the United States to attend the Expo and wrote a book, A New Record of Traveling Around the World, which became the first narrator of China people traveling around the world and introduced the development of American academic science and technology.
Due to the implementation of the Westernization Movement, the Qing government sent officials such as Bin Chun to Europe 12 in 1866, and wrote travel notes. From 1868 to 1870, Manchu zhigang officially went to Europe and America for the first time, and he wrote the first ambassador to Taixi. In addition, Zhang Deyi, a student of Wentong Museum who visited Binchun in his early years, went to Europe many times and wrote seven books, * * *, which described the academic culture of European society more deeply.
After Guangxu began to send envoys abroad, more important officials and intellectuals went to Europe and America to write travel notes. As the envoys stayed longer than ordinary travelers, they had a deeper understanding of western ideology and culture, among which Guo Songtao, Liu Xihong, Xue Fucheng, Xu and others had a great influence on China's ideology and culture. After the Sino-Japanese War of 1894-1895, the traffic between China and foreign countries opened wide, and going abroad became a very common phenomenon, so I won't go into details.
2. International students
The overseas students in modern China began after the Opium War. Most of the early foreign students came from missionary schools in Hong Kong and Macao and further developed abroad. Rong Hong, who went to Yale University in the United States from 65438 to 0850 and to Edinburgh University in the United Kingdom from 65438 to 0848, was one of the representatives of early international students. Rong Rong felt the lack of social culture in China during his studies, so he hoped that more people would go abroad to learn western things after returning home. At his suggestion, the Qing government finally selected the first batch of young children to study in the United States in 1872, and selected the second batch the following year. After graduating from high school, I mainly studied western military and industrial technology, although in 18866.
On the other hand, from 65438 to 0875, students from Fujian Shipyard and Beiyang Naval Academy were sent to study in European countries one after another, which contributed to the study of the western navy in the late Qing Dynasty, but Yan Fu, the most famous of them, had a great influence on the introduction of other western learning, not the military.
Compared with the Westernization Movement, most of the overseas students were officials, and the number was small and sporadic. After the Sino-Japanese War of 1894-1895, there was a wave of studying in Japan at first, and a large number of students studying in Japan sponsored by the government and went by the people themselves, which was of great help to Japan in learning western learning. In addition, after 1900, the number of students studying in the United States increased greatly because the United States returned part of boxer indemnity as funds for studying in the United States. When studying in France, around 19 12 years ago, Li Shizeng, Cai Yuanpei and others initiated work-study programs, which made many people stay in France. These large numbers of foreign students have direct contact with western education, which enables them to introduce western learning to China more directly.
But later, these foreign students got used to western life, believed in Jesus Christ, and were dissatisfied with the Qing government, so the Qing government strictly prohibited China students from studying abroad. The translation and writing of western books is a very important medium for the spread of western learning to the east. For various published books and profiles, please refer to the following list of books and related contents of various disciplines. This paper mainly discusses the publication and circulation of books.
During the spread of western learning to the east in the late Ming and early Qing Dynasties, although a large number of books co-authored and co-translated by priests and scholars appeared, these books failed to get the attention of the general society at that time and failed to enter the developed commercial publishing industry in the late Ming Dynasty. Therefore, although western books are printed and published, they are mainly circulated among a few interested scholars.
Since the beginning of the19th century, it was the western church organizations that first published a large number of books in western languages. For example, in 1843, the British missionary maddox founded the Mohai Library in Shanghai. Mohai Library has published a number of books on western politics, science and religion, such as the New Testament, A Brief Introduction to America, A New Collection of Natural History, Botany, Differential calculus, Algebra and so on. It also published the Chinese periodical Liuhe Congtan, which was the most important publishing institution for translating and introducing western learning in Daoxian period. In addition, it is also an important publishing institution of early western learning.
1887 guangxue society, composed of missionaries and foreign businessmen, is another important publishing institution of western learning. A large number of books on politics, science and technology, history, geography and law have been published and translated, especially after 1895, which has become an important ideological source for Kang Youwei and other reformists.
Another important translation and publishing institution was established by the Qing government under the promotion of the Westernization Movement. Among them, Shanghai Jiangnan Manufacturing Bureau, founded in 1865, translated the most books and had the greatest influence, especially in science and technology. The Wentong Museum in Beijing has the greatest influence on books on public international law, chemistry and law. In addition, Fuzhou Shipping Bureau, Kaiping Mining Bureau, Tianjin Machinery Bureau, Shanghai Guangdong Pavilion, Guangzhou Wentong Pavilion and other institutions have translation and publishing institutions.
Private publishing houses in China started from the Commercial Press, which was established in 1897. For commercial reasons, its publication attaches great importance to the introduction of universal knowledge and the publication of new teaching materials in line with the promotion of new education. At the same time, because its publishing house has branches and sales outlets all over the country, it has made great contributions to spreading new knowledge of western learning to a wider public. Later 19 12 established Zhonghua Bookstore, which was in competition with business, also played a similar role.
As for the circulation of books, in addition to bookstores, all kinds of libraries began to be promoted during the Reform Movement of 1898, hoping to change the traditional situation that China librarians kept their books in private possession and had poor circulation. At the earliest, reformers set up societies all over the country and opened their books to the public. Among them, in addition to traditional academic books, many western books have been borrowed.
The public library was established by the Qing government in 1902, and the first large-scale public library was established in Hunan in 1905, with a large collection of western books. Later, the provinces were gradually established. In the Republic of China, public libraries and private libraries were more developed and played an important role in spreading new knowledge to the people. Compared with books, magazines and newspapers play an important role in spreading the latest western knowledge because they are published regularly. In the first stage of western learning spreading to the east, there were no periodicals.
Most of the periodicals in the early late Qing Dynasty were church periodicals. The earliest periodical in China is the Biography of Examining the Worldly Monthly, which was founded by Ma Lixun, a Jesuit in Britain, and milian in Malacca (18 15). Although it was not published in China, many of them spread to China. In China, the Monthly Bulletin of East-West Examination Statistics, founded by the Dutch priest Karl gutzlaff in 1833, introduced western culture, news and literature. In the following decades, missionaries founded various periodicals one after another, but most of them didn't last long (five years is a long time) and their circulation had little impact.
1853, Jacob and Maihuatuo founded the "Treasure Vision" in Hong Kong; 1854, American missionary margot founded Chinese and foreign bulletin in Ningbo. 1857, Mohai Library published the Chinese periodical Liuhe Congtan; 1862, English Jesuits founded Miscellanies of China and the West in Shanghai; China Church News (1874), founded by American pastor Lin Lezhi on 1868, was renamed World Bulletin, which introduced a wide range of western knowledge. It continued to have a large circulation in Lin Lezhi. It was an important medium to spread western learning in the late Qing Dynasty. China, published by Beijing Kyoto Stone Hospital 65438-0872, is the earliest periodical in Beijing. In addition, Gezhi, founded by John Fryer (formerly known as John Fryer) in 1876, was the first scientific journal in China, which had a great influence on the introduction of western scientific knowledge.
Stimulated by the Sino-Japanese War of 1894-1895 1895, a large number of periodicals founded by China people emerged, which were mostly used to publicize western political thoughts and academics. The earliest ones are 1895' s Wan Guo Bulletin founded by Kang Youwei (with the same name as that founded by Lin Lezhi), 1896' s Qiangkan, and the current affairs newspaper founded by Liang Qichao in the same year. After the failure of the Reform Movement of 1898, Qingyi Newspaper was founded in Yokohama, Japan in 1898, and was later stopped by fire in 190 1 year. At the same time, revolutionary groups have people's newspapers in Japan. The dispute between the two newspapers aroused readers' enthusiastic participation in political affairs and their understanding of many western political, economic and social theories.
The success of the Revolution of 1911 reduced the upsurge of political periodicals in the late Qing Dynasty. New Youth, founded in 19 15, represents a new periodical with cultural discussion as its main purpose. New Youth and other similar periodicals had a great influence on the introduction of western ideas in the Republic of China. Compared with periodicals, newspapers are mostly reportable and commercial, lacking in in-depth knowledge. However, because of their quick publication time and large circulation, they are helpful to widely spread western knowledge and news. Among the most influential newspapers, the earliest is the Shanghai New Newspaper, which was founded in Shanghai by British businessman Pickwood in 186 1. Its contents include news and business news, as well as the introduction of western science and technology.
From 65438 to 0864, Chinese and foreign bulletins, current affairs catalogue and Chen Dexi newspaper were published in Hong Kong. Later, another western businessman, Ernest Major, founded Shenbao on 1872, which became an important newspaper in the late Qing Dynasty and the Republic of China. Although its content is mainly news and anecdotes, it also includes reports on western thoughts and news, as well as discussions on the contact between Chinese and Western cultures in readers' contributions (especially the debate on railways and geomantic omen).
1874, Wang Tao founded Circular Daily in Hong Kong, which is the first Chinese daily newspaper founded by Chinese in the world. Wang Tao wrote a lot of political ideas that advocated reform and self-improvement.
Before 1895, the influence of the new newspaper was limited to coastal port areas. However, after 1895, the circulation of these newspapers increased greatly. For example, in addition to the increase in the layout and distribution area of Shenbao, more newspapers began to compete, including Shanghai News, The Times and Tianjin Ta Kung Pao. In addition, there are revolutionary newspapers such as Alarm Daily, which have been dominated by classical Chinese since the early days. In the late Ming and early Qing Dynasties, the priest giulio aleni introduced the school system to European countries, but it did not attract the attention of scholars at that time, nor did it affect the education in China. At the end of the Qing Dynasty, with this wave of western learning spreading to the east, new western-style schools began to be gradually established and became an important medium for learning western learning. Most of the early western-style schools were run by westerners, especially churches.
The earliest school was Ma Lixun School, which was established in Macau in 1839, and a similar school was established in Guangzhou, the only port at that time. After the Opium War, missionary schools were widely established in various ports, and further developed inland after the Tianjin Treaty, which became an important channel for the early spread of Western learning among the people. Gezhi Academy was founded by Xu Shou and John Flair in 1876. It was an early academy that taught western natural science.
In the Westernization Movement, in order to cultivate relevant talents, the Qing government also began to set up new schools, the earliest of which were Wentong Pavilion in Beijing and Guangfu Pavilion in Shanghai. Later, western-style schools specializing in astronomy, electricity, medicine and military affairs were set up all over the country. During this period, missionary schools also developed further and began to dilute the religious color of schools, which played a significant role in the spread of western learning.
Stimulated by the Sino-Japanese War of 1894 and advocated by the Reform Movement of 1898, a large number of new schools appeared, and a large number of traditional academies were changed into new schools. 1905 the abolition of the imperial examination made traditional private schools lose their main role and go into decline or transformation. In the late Qing Dynasty, the New Deal formally adopted the western academic system to standardize schools at all levels, and the content of learning western learning was more extensive. At the end of the Ming Dynasty, Macao was ceded to Portugal by the imperial court. Therefore, in the process of western learning spreading to the east in the late Ming and early Qing Dynasties, western missionaries often took Macau as a relay station, and some academic ideas were gradually introduced into China. Many China people who deal with westerners also study western languages and cultures in Macau.
184 1 year, Hong Kong was ceded to Britain in treaty of nanking, which made Hong Kong replace Macau to a great extent and become a bridge between China and the West. China people who emigrated to Hong Kong were exposed to the British political system, laws, customs, academic culture and so on. In this environment, many intellectuals with new ideas were born in modern China, including Wang Tao, He Qi, Hong Rengan and others.
With the signing of the unequal treaties between the Qing Dynasty and western countries, the treaty port concessions in various places were gradually established, resulting in many channels for cultural exchanges between China and the West. Among them, the Shanghai Concession is the most representative and influential, and people living in the Concession are more directly exposed to western new scientific and technological things, western political and legal system, capitalist economy and western media. Therefore, many new intellectuals in modern times were influenced by western learning because they lived in Shanghai.
In addition, comprador businessmen who are active in various ports have become a group of people who began to understand western languages and cultural customs earlier because of their business needs. For example, Zheng, who advocates parliamentary democracy, is a businessman born in Guangdong port area. During the reign of Daoguang Xianfeng, China had been in contact with the West before Japan, so the Japanese often learned about the West through China's translation (including the works of Wei Yuan and others). However, as the Japanese began to learn Western learning, including the implementation of the Meiji Restoration, the study of Western learning began to surpass China in the 1960s and 1960s, and attracted the attention of Li Hongzhang and others. In addition, Japanese consul Huang Zunxian introduced the history, progress and development of Japan in 1887, but it did not attract people's attention at that time.
The Sino-Japanese War made more people pay attention to the success of Japanese learning from the West. After that, Russia invaded northeast China, which made the Qing government decide to be friendly with Japan. In addition, due to geographical convenience, a large number of international students go to Japan to study. Because of the closed Chinese characters (there were more Chinese characters in Japanese than in modern Japanese at that time), many people who only knew a little about Japanese could read and even translate Japanese versions of western learning, so Japan became the most important medium for China to learn western academic culture in the late Qing Dynasty (especially in the period of 1895- 19 14).
For example, Kang Youwei, a reformist, took Japan's study of the western political system as an example when implementing the New Deal. Liang Qichao is one of the most influential figures in the ideological circle in the late Qing Dynasty. During his stay in Japan, he introduced a large number of western vocabulary from the study of related translated works. Japan's influence on the spread of western learning in China can be seen from a large number of references to Japanese characters, including important western new concepts such as politics, society, culture, economy, philosophy, chemistry and physics. Hundreds of Japanese-translated western neologisms were introduced into China and widely used.
After 19 14, due to the strong anti-Japanese movement caused by Japan's proposal of Article 21 to the China government, and the convenience of studying in Europe and America, the number of people increased and more attention was paid, and the intermediary role of Japan in learning western learning in China weakened.