In the second half of the 1920s, Pushkin completed the transition from romanticism to realism while maintaining and developing the advantages of his early poems. Tragedy Boris? Godunov (1825) shows that he further realized the great role of the people in history. Poetic novel Eugene? Onegin (1823 ~ 183 1) is the foundation stone of Russian realism. For the first time, it showed typical characters in typical environment in its own literature, and shaped onegin, the representative of most progressive aristocratic youth at that time. They hate the upper class, but they are far away from the people and cannot extricate themselves. As a result, they got nothing. Since 1930s, prose, especially novels, has gradually replaced the dominant position of The Romantic Period's poetry in literature, and Pushkin has accelerated this transformation. His novel The Postman (1830) describes the unfortunate experience of a humble postman. Since then, describing "little people" has become a literary trend. His last novel, The Captain's Daughter (1836), is set in the riots in pugachev. The author constantly explores the laws of social and historical development, which effectively promotes the democratization of literary themes. His literary theory written in the1930s affirmed realism and popularity, and refuted the arrogant reactionary scholar Bulgarin (1789 ~ 1859). Pushkin's various creative activities, realistic methods and pure and beautiful language have laid a broad and solid foundation for Russian literature.
In 1930s, lermontov (1814 ~1841) inherited the tradition of positive romantic poetry, and expressed his strong pursuit of freedom and angry condemnation of aristocratic society in his works (Death of a Poet,1837; Wing Huai,1838; Monk Zi,1839; Devil, 1829 ~ 184 1). But the cruel rule of Nicholas I sometimes made lermontov's poems feel lonely and pessimistic. Bi Qiao Lin, the hero of his realistic novel Contemporary Heroes (1840), is brilliant, but completely despairs of his personal career and life. He is a variant of onegin, a "superfluous man" in 1930s. The profound psychological analysis in the book has great reference significance for later writers. Nikolai Nikolai Gogol (1809 ~ 1852) significantly strengthened the critical elements of Russian literature and truthfully revealed the wretched and boring situation of landlords from other provinces (Mirgorod, 1835), the tragic situation of "nobody" and the social contradictions in big cities (The Story of Petersburg). Imperial envoys (1836) and the first part of ghosts of the dead (1842) pointed their sharp edges at the whole bureaucratic landlord class, and lashed all the decay and reaction of autocratic serfdom Russia with bitter satire. Nikolai Nikolai Gogol's "Drawing Poetry from Ordinary Life and Shocking the Soul with a Faithful Description of Life" (belinsky) points the way for Russian literature. In the 1940s, the crisis of serfdom intensified, and the development direction of Russia became the central issue of national concern. Slavs represent the conservative landlord class and advocate returning to the "simple" patriarchal society before Peter's reform. Western Europeans are mostly liberal aristocrats, hoping that Russia will take the western road completely. Revolutionary Democrats led by belinsky (181~1848) and herzen (18 12 ~ 1870) stood on the side of the peasants and demanded the violent overthrow of the autocratic peasants.
On the basis of studying and summarizing the history and present situation of Russian literature, belinsky established his own realistic aesthetics and comments, holding that life is the source of literature and art, and Nikolai Nikolai Gogol's critical realism is the direction. He strongly opposes the theory of "pure art" and emphasizes the social function of art, but "art must be art first" and the content and form should be organically combined. He gave a thorough explanation of typicality and took typicality as the primary theme of his creation. From 1839 to 1848, he presided over Chronicle of the Motherland (1839 ~ 1884) and Modern People (1847 ~ 1866). A letter to Nikolai Nikolai Gogol (1847) expressed his belief in revolutionary democracy.
Thanks to Nikolai Nikolai Gogol's argument and belinsky's guidance, the connection between Russian literature and life in the 1940s was wider and deeper than that in the 1930s, and critical realism was completely won, with a clearer sociality and purpose. Its main force, Nicholas Nikolai Gogol School or "Naturalism School", gathered a large number of writers who opposed autocratic serfdom, from herzen (whose crime? 》, 184 1; Magpie Stealing the Country, 1848), Turgenev (1818 ~1883; Hunter's Notes, 1847 ~ 1852) to Grigorovic (1822 ~1899; Village,1846; Anton from bad karma, 1847). In 1950s, especially after Russia was defeated by Britain and France in the Crimean War (1853 ~ 1856), the anti-feudal theme was further explored in literature. Turgenev's Luoting (1856) and Noble House (1859) are actually elegies of aristocratic intellectuals. Goncharov's Oblov (1812 ~1891) shows the limits of the degeneration of "redundant people" and the decline of the landlord class more mercilessly. One thousand serfs (1821~1881) by Piesemsky and Sukhovo-Kobylin (1817 ~/) Ostrovsky's Fat Shortage (1856) and Thunderstorm (1859) predicted the collapse of patriarchal clan system. Dobro Lyubov (1836 ~1861) praised Katrina, the heroine of Thunderstorm and a traitor of ethical codes, as "a ray of light in dark kingdom". In order to seize the leadership of the nobility in the liberation movement, civilian intellectuals stepped onto the political stage. The movement turned to the second stage, roughly from 186 1 to 1895.
186 1 On the eve of the abolition of serfdom, aristocratic liberals hoped to retain the monarchy and landlord land ownership and gradually improve it from top to bottom; Chernyshevski (1828 ~ 1889), a civilian intellectual and leader of revolutionary democrats, exposed the deception of the government and liberals and actively launched a peasant uprising. To this end, the two sides launched a fierce debate. After the reform of serfdom, its residual power is still strong, and the control of authoritarian regime on the people has not been relaxed; The accelerated development of capitalism promotes social progress, but it also inevitably brings new contradictions. The struggle between revolutionaries and liberals is not over yet. These great social changes created the premise for the unprecedented prosperity of the greatest genre in the 1950s and 1960s, which was first reflected in the debate in magazines. Chernyshevski and Dobro Lyubov joined the editorial department of Modern People hosted by Inner Klassov (182 1 ~ 1877) in the mid-1950s, making this publication a forum for the revolutionary democratic camp. Modern satirical supplement whistle (1859 ~ 1863) and satirical magazine Mars by poet Kurochkin (183 1 ~ 1875). Hostile to these publications are the Chronicle of the Motherland and the Reader's Library (1834 ~ 1865), and the Russian Herald (181887) by reactionary literati. Chernyshevski and Dobro Lyubov are belinsky's successors. In the famous aesthetic paper The Aesthetic Relationship between Art and Reality (1855), Chernyshevski pointed out that Drew Ning Ji (1824 ~ 1864), Fett (1820 ~ 1892), A. Maikov (182 1 ~ 1897) and others advocated the theory of "pure art" and put forward the materialistic judgment that "beauty is life", demanding that literature reproduce life, explain and judge life, be a "textbook of life" and play a positive social function. The literary criticism of him and Dobro Liu Bofu, through the in-depth analysis of their works, guides readers to correctly understand and strive to change the reality (Chernyshevski: "Isn't it the beginning of change?" 》, 1860; Dobro Lyubov: What is Aubrey Love's personality? 》, 1859; "When will the real day come? 》, 1860)。
Under the influence of Chernyshevski Thought, civilian intellectual writers have flourished. They can't be satisfied with sympathizing with the fate of "little people" like writers in the first half of the19th century, but focus on describing the economic life and social status of the people. Their representative works are Ni? A Close-up of Peasants by Usbinski (1837 ~ 1889), People in Podripu Village by Reshetnikov (1841~10/) and "The Peasants". Kloc-0/862), Sleptsov and Necrasov stood on the side of ordinary intellectuals and wrote a large number of excellent poems about people's sufferings in the 1950s and 1960s (meditation at the door,1858; On the Volga River,1860; Merchant,1861; Cold and red nose,1864; Railway, 1864), but he believes in the power among the people. 1866 a year and a half after the publication of modern people magazine was suspended, Necrasov and the revolutionary democratic writer sheldelin (1826 ~ 1889) presided over another progressive publication, namely the adaptation of the chronicle of the motherland.
"Newcomers"-fighting civilian intellectuals entering literary works is the requirement and symbol of the times. 1860, Turgenev's The Night Before embodies this spirit of the times to some extent. Then, he further shaped the image of Bazarov in Father and Son (1862). Bazarov believed in materialism and democracy, and opposed autocratic serfdom and free aristocracy, but his nihilistic tendency did not conform to the style of advanced figures at that time. In Chernyshevski's What Should I Do (1862 ~ 1863), the "newcomers" all showed their magical powers, among which Rakhmetov was the first professional revolutionary in the history of Russian literature. The works are full of romantic passion, which inspires the fighting spirit of contemporary and future generations. The appearance of "new human beings" aroused the anger of hostile camps, and anti-nihilistic novels were all the rage, such as Despair by Leskov (183 1 ~ 1895) and Turbid Sea by Pisemsky (1865). Dostoevsky (1821~1881) satirizes liberals (187 1 ~ 1872) in "The Devil".
Dostoevsky's excellent novels are full of sympathy for the weak and protests against society. Notes on the Dead House (186 1 ~ 1862) reveals the inhuman life of the convict, and the basic theme he explored most deeply in the 1960s was the crisis caused by the powerful capitalist offensive in the city: being bullied and insulted (186 1). Through meticulous psychological description, it reflects the tragic situation and desperate struggle of citizens, petty officials and poor students who can't control their own destiny, and the works run through the humanitarian spirit; At the same time, the author directly violates the humanitarian principle, regards suffering as an exercise to purify the soul, and advocates slavery and religious fanaticism. Tolstoy's epic "War and Peace" (1828 ~ 19 10) praised the Russian people in18/kloc-0. The magnificent historical scenes in the book are intertwined with personal complex inner activities, which fully shows Tolstoy's profound artistic foundation. Herzen's large-scale memoir Past and Random Thoughts (1852 ~ 1868) is also based on a vast social history, but from the standpoint of revolutionary democracy, it describes his and his comrades' struggle against autocratic serfdom and their pursuit of Russian revolutionary thought.
After the populists started the movement of "going to the people" (see Turgenev's Virgin Land), since the mid-1970s, Umov (1838 ~ 190 1), Zlatovratski (1845 ~/kloc). Usbinski (1843 ~ 1902)' s collection of close-up works, Country Diary (1877 ~ 1880), Peasants and Peasants' Labor (1880) and The Power of the Land. Kloc-0/876) is a summary of his life's creation, which comprehensively reflects the social life before and after the peasant reform and depicts the image of a rebellious peasant and a civilian intellectual who joined the peasant revolution.
Schederin also achieved fruitful results in 1970s. After Prose from Other Provinces (1856), in History of a City (1869 ~ 1870), he exposed stupid officials and cruel officials and the state system with great grief and high generalization, and refuted Dostoevsky with exaggerated and grotesque methods. Gentlemen of Tashkent (1869 ~ 1872) and Yujin Liang Yan (1872 ~ 1876) describe the development of Russian capitalism after the reform, the decline of landlords and the rise of rich peasants and new traders. The leftovers in Golov (1875 ~ 1880) describe the empty soul and doomed fate of the whole landlord class in the form of family chronicle and profound psychological analysis. The false image of Judas Shika in the book is one of the greatest achievements of Russian satire literature. The human metabolism caused by the expansion of capitalist forces can be found in ostrovsky's plays Easy Come, Fast Go (1869), Forest (1870), Wolf and Sheep (1875) and Unmarried Women (/kloc-).
Brothers karamazov, Dostoevsky's last masterpiece (1879 ~ 1880), on the one hand, reveals the corruption of aristocratic landlords truly and profoundly, and points out that the suffering world will inevitably produce rebellious thoughts; On the other hand, they continue to oppose the revolution and preach the Christian spirit of forgiveness. Tolstoy's Anna? Karenina (1876 ~ 1877) is the most vivid. Anna died in the sharp contradiction between being loyal to feudal ethics and demanding personality liberation; Another hero, Levin, tried to resist the capitalist trend with his unique agricultural reform and converted to religion after his failure. In the late 1970s, Tolstoy witnessed the bankruptcy of the countryside. Under the influence of the democratic movement, he broke away from all the traditional ideas of the aristocratic class and stood on the position of patriarchal farmers.
188 1 year, the populists killed Alexander II, and the government fought back wildly, and a reactionary period that lasted for many years began. The Chronicle of the Motherland, which was painstakingly managed by Shedelin 1868 ~ 1884, was seized, and boring humorous magazines such as Dragonfly sold well all over the country. Revolutionary populism degenerated into liberalism, and its writers beautified capitalist rural life, advocating "trivial matters" and advocating little by little improvement. Aestheticism resurfaced, and the decadent school made a public appearance. Even in the works of novelist Garson (1855 ~ 1888) and poet Naderson (1862 ~ 1887), there is a melancholy tone.
However, Shedelin still holds high the banner of revolutionary democracy, and his fairy tale (1882 ~ 1886) lashes out at all kinds of reactionaries and speculators. After abandoning his prejudice against nihilism, Leskov wrote short stories showing the strength of the people and some works satirizing the church in the 1980s, such as Left-hander, Clever Barber and Sentinel. Karonen (1853 ~ 1892), an outstanding populist writer, was loyal to revolutionary democracy. Ma Ming-sibillat Ke (1852 ~ 19 12)' s novels Millions of Furniture in Privalov and Mine Nest (both 1884) show the decisive influence of capitalism on urban and rural life and the deepening of the contradiction between labor and capital. Korolenko (1853 ~ 192 1) struggled against the political counter-current, with his Strange Girls (1880), McArdle's Dream (1883) and Among Bad Companions. Since the mid-1980s, Chekhov (1860 ~ 1904) has reached a new depth, writing about human suffering (sadness,1885; "Distress" and "Wanka", 1886) and the ideological exploration of intellectuals ("Boring Story", 1889). In order to report the problems caused by the rapid development of capitalism in time, populist writers such as Garson, Korolenko and Chekhov often adopt the genre of feature films or short stories. The development of small prose works has become a feature of Russian literature from the 1970s to the early 20th century.
In the early 1990s, Russian society showed an active atmosphere. Since the mid-1990s, there has been a strong workers' movement. The new situation aroused the writer's mood. Korolenko wrote the frolicking river (1892) and the moment (1900), and Chekhov wrote the sixth ward (1892) and gooseberry (1898), saying Script cherry orchard, 1903 ~ 1904). In Resurrection (1889 ~ 1899), Tolstoy fiercely criticized "all state systems, church systems, social systems and economic systems" (in Leninist language), and at the same time advocated reactionary theories such as "moral self-realization" and "don't use violence against violence". His historical novel Haze-Miao La (1904) satirizes the present and attacks the tyranny of the czar.
In the 1990s, a number of literary rookies emerged: Willy Sayef (1867 ~ 1945), kuprin (1870 ~ 1938) and Bunin (1870 ~1. At the beginning of the 20th century, they gathered around the Knowledge Publishing House hosted by Gorky (1868 ~ 1936) and actively carried out creative activities. Together with Tolstoy and Korolenko, they have effectively cracked down on the decadent school in Russian poetry. Among them, balmont (1867 ~ 1942), Merezhkovski (1866 ~ 194 1) and gippius (1869 ~1944). Gumilyov (1886 ~ 192 1), Akhmatova (1889 ~ 1966) and Bruck (1882 ~/kloc-0)
In the mid-1990s, the Russian liberation movement entered the proletarian period, and Russian literature correspondingly entered a new stage, mainly marked by the related works of plekhanov (1856 ~ 19 18), Lenin and Gorky. Plekhanov laid the foundation of Marxist sociology of art as early as the end of 19 (letter without address, 1899 ~ 1900). His Art and Social Life (1912 ~1913) expounds the methodology, task and development path of Marxist aesthetics and literature and art, and Lenin's Party Organization and Party Literature (1905) and/kloc. In kloc-0/ year, Tolstoy's article "In Memory of herzen" (654438 Gorky's early works reflect people's spontaneous protests against the landlord-bourgeois society and their yearning for a better life (Grandpa Aship and Leonka,1894; Cerca Shi,1895; Twenty-six and one, 1899), with romantic crayons, sketched some heroic images that love freedom (Ezekiel's songs of the old lady and the eagle are all1895; The song of Haiyan, 190 1). 1906 The drama Enemy and the novel Mother announced the birth of socialist realistic literature. Later Gorky wrote Childhood and On Earth (1913 ~1916).