[Keywords:] graphic organizer; Function; Type; Select a frame; Founding principle
【 China Library Classification Number 】 G43 【 Document Identification Number 】 A 【 Document Number 】1672 ― 0008 (2009) 06-0061-06
First, the connotation of graphic organizer
Simply put, the graphic organizer is a graphic structure used to express the learning process and results. As a learning tool, graphics is a form, a carrier, and the purpose and key of organizational learning. At present, there are two main views on graphic organizers abroad.
1. Appearance feature perspective
Graphic organizer refers to knowledge map, concept map, story map, cognitive organizer, advance organizer or concept map [1]. For example, the graphic organizer is a graphic way to explain written or oral statements and a visual way to express information [2], and so on.
2. The perspective of application function
Graphic manager is widely used and powerful. Many foreign studies combine the shape and connotation of graphic organizers, and expound the role of graphic organizers from many aspects: (1) graphic organizers are visual representations of knowledge, concepts or opinions. It helps learners to improve their interest in learning, stimulate their learning motivation, reduce or release boredom, improve the recall rate, sort out information, organize their thinking and promote understanding [3]. (2) The graphic organizer is a graphic structure that visually represents information, which can be used in various learning activities, such as brainstorming, opinion generation, information analysis, information organization and expression discovery [4]. (3) Graphic organizer is a visual way to construct knowledge and organize information. It helps learners to transform or refine a large amount of messy or scattered information into a structured and easy-to-read graphic way, with the aim of expressing complex information in an easy-to-understand way [5]. (4) graphic organizer is a visual graphic representation, which is used to describe the relationship between facts, terms or opinions in learning tasks. It has a series of tools, such as letting learners thinking visualization, let learners understand the meaning of complex content through exploration, and intuitively express the connection and relationship between different parts, such as similarity, difference and order [6].
The key to understanding the connotation of graphic organizer is to grasp two points. First, the graphic organizer is a visual or visualized form, such as various graphics or table structures; Secondly, the purpose or function of graphic organizers is to promote learning effect or efficiency, such as classification, analysis, comparison, concept discrimination, feature generalization, brainstorming or improving memory or retrieval.
Second, the function of the graphic organizer
Graphic organizer has many functions and functions, and is an ideal learning tool for different types of learners. As the saying goes, a picture is worth a thousand words.
From the learner's point of view, some studies believe that graphic organizer, as a learning tool, helps to make it an engaged learner, enhance learning motivation, pay attention to learning strategies, get used to communication and cooperation, and improve learning responsibility [7]. Using the graphic organizer, learners can help transform complex and chaotic information into meaningful expressions by simplifying induction, emphasizing key points and explaining deduction. It is helpful to guide information collection, lock the target, show the gains and show the shortcomings, and keep the direction of inquiry learning activities; By focusing on thinking or moving goals, identify relevant parts or fields and play the role of mind map; By creating a graphic organizer, we can improve our understanding of learning content, promote dialogue and cooperation, collect opinions and improve decision-making power, and so on [8].
Some studies have summarized the 10 functions of graphic organizers from the perspective of promoting the development of learners' cognitive or thinking activities: ① summarizing the text content (summarizing the main points); (2) Determine or explain information (assisted or explained by graphics); ③ Express understanding (retelling in one's own language); ④ Confirm and explain the key words related to the text; ⑤ Check and analyze texts (such as main points, characters' behaviors, problem solving, causality, facts/opinions or opinions); ⑥ Text reasoning (such as gestalt reading); ⑦ Contrast/contrast (such as people, scenes and events); (8) feelings about the text (related to personal experience or feelings); Pet-name ruby selection (select appropriate reference resources from the target); Attending to verify the understanding of the text (such as by predicting results or behaviors) [9].
Understanding from the perspective of learning tools is more helpful to fully grasp the function of graphic organizer from the practical point of view. To sum up, the graphics manager can be used as the following series of learning tools:
(1) Structured or networked tools. Graphic organizers help learners to display the associations, patterns and relationships of events, elements or viewpoints in a structured way. Help learners organize materials or integrate knowledge around a theme or argument; It is helpful to outline the basic structure of the learned content (the relationship between basic concepts and concepts); Describe the existing knowledge structure related to the learning theme, and add new concepts, new ideas or new knowledge to the existing knowledge structure. According to Bruner's structural teaching theory, mastering the basic structure of learning content is the main symbol of effective learning.
(2) Memory, storage and retrieval tools. A good graphic organizer is a way to remember, store and retrieve knowledge, which can be used as a place where knowledge resides or has effective clues. Can promote the long-term memory of knowledge. When memory happens, the first thing is coding. If it can be a long-term memory, it can be preserved forever. When the code is converted into an event or information, it can become a persistent form [10]. Graphic presentation can stimulate students' brains to establish meaning and connect it with memory.
(3) Knowledge reduction and aggregation tools. Graphic organizers have concentrated a lot of knowledge and extracted the core content of knowledge, which enables learners to gather relevant research and quickly distinguish which information they need more. For example, learners can go to the library or search for information online with the prepared outline or outline [1 1].
(4) Internalization and construction tools. When learners convert or condense a large amount of data and information into some kind of graphic organizer, they can help to understand and explain, realize the connection between old and new knowledge, promote assimilation and adaptation, realize the integration or expansion of knowledge, and thus form their own views or knowledge chunks. Because the process of creating a graphic organizer is actually a process of understanding, organizing, explaining, reflecting and correcting knowledge, and a process of continuous dialogue with the learned content objects.
(5) Problem solving tools. Graphic organizers help learners to decompose problem objectives, promote brainstorming and disagreement among learners, gather methods, procedures, processes or steps to solve problems, screen or optimize solutions to problems, and constantly produce new knowledge, new problems or new methods in the process of solving problems, thus cultivating learners' ability to solve problems.
(6) Create tools. Graphic organizers help learners to run divergent and convergent thinking and practice innovative thinking. For example, unlike linear text, the elements of a view or chart in a graph can be arranged at will, and learners can add new ideas by repeatedly adjusting the chart form.
(7) communication and collaboration tools. Knowledge learning is inseparable from social construction, that is, social exchange and cooperation. A well-organized figure can express ideas and understanding concisely, attract others' attention, and remember key contents for a longer time than pure language communication. The graphics created by individual learners represent a possible information or concept, which can be used to share and communicate with others and provide a convenient carrier for others to add or delete information. The graphics created by group learners represent the information or ideas of the group, and the graphic organizer acts as a powerful tool to disperse and aggregate the views of the group, because the visual form can combine the inspiration scattered in the individual brain into a whole structure in time. In group learning, project learning, problem solving and other learning activities, graphic organizer is usually an effective tool for learners to discuss a problem and gather everyone's ideas.
(8) Evaluation tools. Graphic organizers help learners check the quality of knowledge acquisition process and results. Generally speaking, there are only graphics that can't be thought clearly and drawn clearly. If learners don't understand what they have learned or can't summarize it abstractly, then it is impossible to express what they have learned with graphic organizers. Through the graphic organizer, we can not only examine the learners' mastery of what they have learned, but also consider the learners' logical thinking process and knowledge, and diagnose the places where learners' thinking and knowledge are incomplete.
In addition, students can use the graphic manager as a process evaluation tool. For example, the work of a graphic organizer reflects learners' understanding of knowledge in a specific field, including the diversity of knowledge. Learners can reflect on their mastery of knowledge in the process of creating works and implement timely and effective revisions.
Third, the theoretical basis of graphic organizers
Why can graphic organizers effectively promote learning? What is its principle? Related theoretical research reveals this problem. Generally speaking, the theoretical basis of graphic organizers mainly includes dual coding theory, brain science, tower of experience, learning theory and knowledge management.
1. dual coding theory
Canadian psychologist Pavio (A. Paivio, 1984) believes that human beings have two cognitive subsystems, one is devoted to the representation and processing of non-verbal things and events (i.e. images), and the other is used for language processing. Therefore, there are two different representation units, namely "image unit" suitable for psychological mapping and "language unit" suitable for language entities. The former is organized according to the relationship between part and whole, while the latter is organized according to association and hierarchy. Dual coding theory can be used in many cognitive learning, such as memory, problem solving, concept learning and language acquisition. It also shows the importance of spatial ability in guildford's intelligence theory, because a large number of images obtained by vision involve information in the spatial field. Therefore, in the process of information storage, processing and extraction, language and non-language information processing are equally important. Humans can present information in the form of vision and language at the same time, so as to enhance the memory and recognition of information.
2. Brain science
Studies have shown that the human brain is divided into two hemispheres, which have almost the same structure but different functions. The left brain focuses on language expression, logical thinking, mathematical deduction, word memory, calculation and order, classification, intelligence and science; The right brain focuses on nonverbal expression, innovative thinking, image perception, concrete thing memory, visual space observation, music, sensibility and art. It is the harmonious unity of the division of labor and cooperation between the two hemispheres of the brain that makes the brain play a highly complex overall function. Humans are born with the ability to use images. According to research, human brain activities mostly involve the processing and analysis of visual images, and visual representation is superior to linguistic representation in different tasks. According to the research of modern brain science, it is complex, even unconscious, for the visual thinking of the right brain to carry out isomorphic activities of old and new perceptual information around the difficult problems solved by the logical thinking of the left brain. In unconscious activities, the brain is in a highly free and open state, which makes the isomorphic activity of newly input perceptual information and accumulated perceptual information very active, and it is easy to obtain a brand-new "perceptual image" and feed it back to the left brain for logical recognition. If it does not meet the requirements, the right brain is given a new "target image" for visual thinking, and this is repeated many times until the reasoning result that meets the purpose is obtained.
3. Tower of Experience
The proposer of this theory is American audio-visual educator Dale (experience cone, E. Dale,1946; 1964)。 The tower of experience is a theoretical model about the classification of learning experience, and its learning experience can be divided into three categories: First, learning experience by doing, including purposeful and direct experience, design experience and action experience. The second is the learning experience of "observation", including demonstration, off-campus study tour, exhibition, TV and film, radio, recording, still life painting and so on. The third is the learning experience of "using symbols", including visual symbols and verbal symbols. Various learning experiences are interrelated and permeated with each other. This theory is of practical significance for teaching (including learners) to effectively deal with the relationship between direct experience and indirect experience, solve the contradiction between concrete experience and abstract experience, and prevent "empty talk"-from concept to concept. Graphic organizers have the characteristics of belonging to or running through three learning experiences, and play a corresponding role in the learning experience category of "doing, observing and using symbols"
4. Learning theory
The function of graphic organizer can find strong support from many learning theories. For example, behaviorism focuses on observable and measurable explicit learning behavior, emphasizing that learning is the connection between stimulus and response, and focusing on reinforcement; Cognitive theory holds that learning lies in the change of internal cognition, and the learning process is the process of information processing and reorganization of cognitive structure, which emphasizes assimilation, adaptation and overall understanding of learning tasks, and emphasizes the role of intuitive thinking (intuitive thinking usually takes the form of images); Constructivism holds that learning is the process or result of learners' active construction on the basis of the original cognitive structure, and everyone can generate their own cognitive model and personalized understanding. Knowledge is the result of meaning construction. The construction of knowledge needs to explain, communicate, express or show what you have learned, which is a necessary way to construct knowledge and an effective way to test the level of knowledge construction. The construction of knowledge needs to use various external representations of knowledge (including graphic organizers) and various learning tools and learning resources to solve problems.
5. Knowledge management
Knowledge management refers to the process that organizations or individuals use relevant tools and methods to acquire, store, enjoy, apply and innovate knowledge. Every learner is a knowledge manager, and the efficiency of knowledge management directly determines the efficiency of learning. The whole process from knowledge acquisition to innovation involves the mutual transformation of explicit knowledge and tacit knowledge. In these transformations, knowledge visualization is an important form and means. For example, Ikujiro Nonaka (nonaka, 199 1) thinks that making tacit knowledge explicit means expressing things that can only be understood but cannot be expressed in some way, and one of its most powerful tools is knowledge visualization. Knowledge visualization can better acquire and discuss knowledge, and also help to manage knowledge more generally.
In addition, knowledge visualization helps to solve a series of important knowledge-related problems in organizations, such as the asymmetry of knowledge dissemination, promoting group knowledge innovation through the use of inspiring sketches and rich image metaphors, and reducing learners' information load through simplification and compression. [ 12].
Fourth, the types of graphic organizers
There are many types of graphic organizers. Because every graphic organizer has an obvious external form, the most direct and simple way to master the types of graphic organizers is to divide them according to their external characteristics. According to related research, graphic organizers can be divided into five types according to their appearance characteristics, and each type has its main function or use. As shown in table 1 [13].
Verb (abbreviation of verb) the choice of graphic manager
There are many kinds of graphic organizers with different functions, and each graphic organizer can be used to support various learning or thinking development. The key to choosing a graphic organizer is: first, master the category, function or main purpose of the graphic organizer; Second, we should understand the purpose of learning or thinking development, so as to establish the mapping relationship between means and purpose. So, what kind of learning or thinking development can graphic organizers effectively promote? We believe that learners can flexibly use the following reference frames when choosing graphic organizers.
1. Take cognitive goals as the frame of reference.
In the classification of cognitive goals, Bloom's research in the United States is the most famous. In half a century's research, they have successively introduced two versions of cognitive goal classification (1956,2001). In the first edition (1956), they divided cognitive goals into cognition, understanding, application, analysis, synthesis and evaluation. In the second edition (200 1), they emphasize the initiative, cognition and constructiveness of learners in meaningful learning, and how learners acquire knowledge and think. Different from the one-way classification dimension of the first edition, the second edition adopts the two-dimensional classification of "knowledge" and "cognitive process". Knowledge refers to the relevant contents involved in learning, which can be divided into four categories from concrete to abstract: factual knowledge, conceptual knowledge, procedural knowledge and metacognitive knowledge; The cognitive process includes academic behaviors that need to be mastered in learning, and it is divided into six levels according to the cognitive complexity from low to high: memory, understanding, application, analysis, evaluation and creation [14]. Both versions of cognitive goal classification can be used as a reference framework for learning to choose graphic organizers. As shown in Table 2.
The "knowledge dimension" and "cognitive process dimension" of cognitive goals in the second edition can be used as a reference framework for learners to choose graphic organizers. For example, in realizing the knowledge dimension, learners can use graphic organizers to promote factual knowledge (terms, specific details and elements), conceptual knowledge (categories and classifications, principles and generalizations, theories/patterns and structures), procedural knowledge (knowledge of skills and algorithms in specific disciplines, skills and methods, and determining when to apply appropriate procedural knowledge), and metacognitive knowledge (including knowledge of strategies and cognitive tasks, such as situational and conditional knowledge and self-knowledge).
As far as the dimension of cognitive process is concerned, learners can use graphic organizers to carry out various thinking activities and promote the realization of various cognitive goal levels. For example, through the graphic organization tools of recognition (confirmation) and recall (extraction), the cognitive goal of memory is promoted; Through the graphic organization tools of explanation (transformation, explanation, representation, clarification), illustration (explanation, example), classification (classification), generalization (generalization, abstraction), reasoning (extrapolation, addition, prediction, conclusion), comparison (comparison, matching, mapping) and explanation (building a model), the cognitive goal of understanding is promoted. By executing (completing) and realizing (using) the graphic organizer tool, the realization of cognitive goals in application is promoted; Through the graphic organization tools of differentiation (differentiation, selection, differentiation and focus), organization (forming structure, integrating content, seeking consistency, defining essence and semantic analysis) and attribution (deconstruction), the cognitive goal of analysis is promoted; Promote the cognitive goal of evaluation through the graphic organizer tools of verification (inspection, identification, monitoring and coordination) and judgment (judgment); Through the generation (hypothesis), planning (design), realization/output (construction) of graphic organizer tools, the realization of cognitive goals in creation is promoted, and so on.
2. Take the development of learning dimension as the frame of reference.
Dimensions of Learning (DOL) is an applied learning theory put forward by American curriculum reform expert R. Marzano. Learning dimensions include five dimensions: first, learners' attitudes and feelings; second, acquiring and integrating knowledge; third, expanding and refining knowledge; fourth, using knowledge meaningfully; and fifth, productive thinking habits [15]. In the five dimensions, all learning takes place in learners' attitudes and feelings (dimension 1) and the use of productive thinking habits (dimension 5), and any learning process is characterized by emotions and attitudes. The other three dimensions are necessary for thinking in learning. When expanding and refining knowledge, learners are also acquiring and integrating knowledge; When using knowledge, learners are also expanding their knowledge. Thinking skills and thinking process are not separated from each other and act linearly, but a process of interaction and influence. The five dimensions of learning generally realize the interaction between cognition and emotion, which determines the effectiveness of learning. Reasonable selection of graphic organization tools can effectively promote learners to acquire and integrate knowledge, expand and refine knowledge and use knowledge meaningfully. As shown in Table 3.
3. Take the development of rational thinking as the frame of reference.
"Rational thinking" is the learning ability goal put forward by American educator Campbell, 2003) [16]. The so-called "rational thinking" usually refers to the psychological activity state and information processing mode when deeply understanding and applying (transferring) knowledge. Learning or teaching should attach importance to cultivating the ability of "rational thinking". Based on Campbell's classification of 20 kinds of rational thinking and the way to promote the development of rational thinking by asking questions, learners can effectively choose graphic organizers. As shown in Table 4.
4. Take the development of daily thinking as the frame of reference.
In daily study, a series of common thinking activities will be involved, and the characteristics of these thinking activities have a corresponding relationship with graphic organizers. Learners can use corresponding graphic organizers to promote the development of daily thinking activities. As shown in Table 5.
Sixth, the creative principles of graphic organizers
1. Target orientation
Graphic organizer is used to achieve a certain cognitive goal or promote the development of thinking ability, otherwise it will become a mere formality and fancy decoration, reversing the relationship between means and goals. Goal orientation will determine the form selection of graphic organizers, the development of cognitive activities and the application effect of graphic organizers. Therefore, learners should be clear about their learning tasks and goals, and understand the frame of reference for choosing graphic organizers.
Match each other
Any kind of graphic organizer has its specific form and function, and the learning content that learners face also has its particularity, such as the difference between factual knowledge learning and procedural knowledge learning. Therefore, learners should master the types of graphic organizers, understand the characteristics of learning content, and realize the organic integration of formal expression of graphic organizers and concreteness of learning content.
3. Freedom and openness
Plane organizers have certain types and forms of expression, but they are not rigid. Learners are free to choose and even innovate graphic organizers according to their preferences, learning tasks and goals, so as to pursue the most diverse views and realize the continuous addition and deletion of views and the continuous change of graphics.
4. Overall structure
No matter what kind of graphic organizer you choose, you should attach great importance to the theme, various elements and their relationships expressed by graphics, so that the content of graphics or visual objects can form a whole structure.
Concise and effective
The purpose of using and creating a graphic organizer is to simplify the complex, abstract the concrete, and turn the recessive into the dominant, so as to improve the expressive force and communication effect, and avoid the form being more important than the content and losing the original meaning of the graphic organizer.
6. Visual design
Graphic organizer is a way of visual information dissemination, and its effect is influenced by relevant design principles. In visual design, M. Thompson( 1994+0994) put forward the basic essentials of 1 1: conciseness, clarity, balance, coordination, organization, emphasis, distinctiveness, unity, perspective, clear viewpoint and reasonable framework. In the aspect of knowledge visualization, Yudelman (2004) put forward five basic principles: graphical (focusing on models rather than unstructured information), optimization (focusing on information expression to improve cognitive efficiency), stability (focusing on information expression and operating situation), adaptability (focusing on the aggregation of graphical interfaces and applications) and digitalization (dealing with complexity in a digital way) [65438+. These principles are instructive and instructive to the use and creation of graphic organizers.
In addition, you cannot create a graphic manager without creating tools. Generally speaking, there are two main tools for creating graphic organizers, hand-drawn and digital drawing. The characteristics of freehand brushwork painting are simple equipment, not limited by the place, flexible use, suitable for expressing instant inspiration, but the works are arbitrary and difficult to change and transfer.
The way of digitalization is to use computer technology, which is characterized by easy modification, dynamic link, convenient conversion, simplicity and beauty, easy storage, communication and dissemination. Generally speaking, using drawing tools of Office software such as Office and Wps to create graphic organizers can meet the basic requirements. However, this attached drawing tool has little selectivity for graphic templates and colors, and requires high composition ability of learners. Creating complex graphics is time-consuming and not suitable for expressing complex information or ideas. Therefore, learners can choose special tools to create graphic organizers, such as inspiration, thinking manager, thinking mapper, brain, Axonidea processor, CMAP, decision browser, KMAP, SEM Net, research group, Coco Systems, activity map, TextVision/Tekstnet, Smart Ideas, Egle Magic, etc. These softwares provide rich graphic templates with friendly interface, simple operation and diverse functions, and the menu setting and editing functions are similar, but only focus on graphic drawing. As long as learners learn one or two kinds of such software, they can draw inferences from others.
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On graphic organizer
Qiuzhi county
Institute of Curriculum and Teaching, Jiangxi Normal University, Nanchang, Jiangxi 330027)
Abstract graphic organizer can be used as a powerful visual learning tool, which is freely controlled by learners. This paper discusses the meaning, function, theoretical basis, types, selection and application of graphic organizers, as well as some principles of creating graphic organizers, in an attempt to obtain basic knowledge about graphic organizers.
Keywords graphic organizer; Function; Type; The principle of FSA creation
Editor of this article: Sun Aiping