Let's start with protons ... the mass of protons is not just the sum of its parts. Through a lot of research, scientists have found the reason for the proton mass of subatomic particles, not as previously thought.
Protons consist of three smaller quarks. It seems reasonable that the mass of protons can be obtained by increasing the mass of quarks. But this is not the case. In fact, the total mass of three quarks is too small to explain the total mass of protons. The new detailed calculation shows that only 9% of proton weight comes from quark mass, and the rest comes from complex interaction inside particles.
Above: quarks of protons and neutrons.
It turns out that the interaction between the lower quark and the Higgs field is stronger, so its mass is greater, which is why the mass of protons and neutrons is slightly different.
Above: the straw hat-like action characteristics of Higgs mechanism-high energy ensures symmetry and does not produce mass; Low energy leads to symmetry breaking and produces mass.
In 20 12, physicists first detected the Higgs boson, and quarks gained some mass through the coupling process with this elementary particle. But the Higgs boson brings very little mass to quarks, even only a small part of quarks' mass. So for protons, the Higgs mechanism is still not enough to explain the mass of protons.
On the contrary, most of the mass of proton 938 million electron volts comes from the mechanism of quantum chromodynamics (QCD). Quantum chromodynamics is a theory to explain the internal particle laws of subatomic particles. Scientists use this theory to study the properties of protons mathematically. However, it is very difficult to calculate by quantum chromodynamics. Therefore, they used a technique called Lattice Quantum Chromodynamics (LAT-iss QCD) to simplify the calculation. This technology divides time and space into grids. Quarks can only exist at points in the grid. It's like chess can only walk on the grid of the board, not anywhere.
Above: Lattice quantum chromodynamics, basic principle schematic diagram.
Physicists have used this technique to calculate the mass of protons before. But until now, they have not figured out which part of the proton provides how much mass. The researchers found that in addition to the mass of quarks, another 32% of the mass comes from the energy of quarks moving inside protons.
There are stationary massless particles called gluons between quarks, which help quarks to bind together, and their energy contributes 36% of proton mass. The remaining 23% comes from the complex interaction between quarks and gluons.
The relationship between Higgs field and mass The story of particle mass began after the Big Bang. At the beginning of the universe, almost all particles are massless, and they spread in the very hot "original soup" at the speed of light. At some point during this period, the "curtain" of the Higgs field opened, penetrated into the universe, and endowed the elementary particles with mass.
When Higgs field exists, the behavior of particles in it will change. One of the most common metaphors is to compare the Higgs field to a bucket of molasses or thick syrup, which will slow down some particles as they pass through.
Others imagine the Higgs field as a crowd or fans at a party. When famous scientists or celebrities pass by, people surround them and make them stumble, but the faces of these ordinary "fans" are often ignored. The more famous a "star" is, the more fans and fans there are, and the greater the field of "intelligence".
Higgs field makes elementary particles (that is, electrons, quarks and other inseparable particles) produce mass. But these still account for only a small part of the mass of the universe.
The rest of the mass in the universe comes from other parts of protons and neutrons-almost all from powerful nuclear forces. These two kinds of particles are composed of three quarks, which move at an extremely fast speed and are bound together by gluons, which have a strong force. The energy of quark-gluon interaction also constitutes the mass of protons and neutrons.
Above: Conceptual changes of proton structure. 1980 (left) is a simple three-quark model, but now scientists have found that there are complex virtual particle interactions between quarks, and these virtual particles store a lot of energy (mass).
That is to say, what we think of as almost eternal proton mass is actually composed of quark motion and the energy of their interaction inside the proton. Once quarks stop moving, protons will decay and lose this mass. So for the quality of microscopic particles, its quality is not an eternal thing. Neutrons will lose mass and decay into protons, and scientists estimate that protons will also decay. So from a microscopic point of view, there is no eternal absolute mass.
The concept of relativistic mass has always been the basis of physics. It appeared in the early stage of this subject, and its importance has gradually increased with the development of physics for centuries. Its definition can be traced back to Galileo and Newton, who believe that mass is an attribute that enables objects to resist external motion changes. Newton defined momentum and force vector by mass: he defined the momentum of an object as p = m v (where V is the speed of the object) and force as the growth rate of momentum of the object: f = dP/dT. When the mass of the object is constant, the formula for calculating force becomes F = m dv/ dt = ma, where A is the acceleration of the object.
This definition of quality has been directly used for nearly two centuries. Then Einstein made the definition of mass more complicated in his theory of motion relativity. The above definition of mass still holds true for static objects, so it is called the static mass of objects, and is generally expressed as m0.
However, when an object is moving, we find that its force-acceleration relationship now depends on two quantities: the speed of the object and the angle between its moving direction and the acting force. When the forces involved produce accelerations along three vertical spatial axes, we will find that there will be a factor in the three equations of motion: γ, where γ is the Lorentz factor γ = (1-V 2/C 2)- 1/2, which often appears in relativity.
The idea that speed determines quality can actually be traced back to Lorenz's research. His paper "electromagnetic phenomena in a System with a Speed Less than the Speed of Light" published in 1904 introduced the "longitudinal" and "transverse" electromagnetic masses of electrons. With these, he can write the motion equation of electrons in Newton's electromagnetic field, as long as the mass of electrons is allowed to increase with its speed. From 1905 to 1909, Planck, Lewis and tolman established the relativistic theory of force, momentum and energy. It has been proved that single mass correlation can be used for any acceleration. Therefore, if M in Newton's original expression p = mv is regarded as "relativistic mass" related to speed, then the mass of an object can be independent of the acceleration direction of the object.
So an object with velocity v and momentum p has relativistic mass, given by m = p/v, and the total energy obtained should be mc2. The relativistic mass of an object with a rest mass of M0 is γM 0.
Therefore, the classical formula m =p/v can subtly define the relativistic mass of a photon: it moves at a speed C and has energy E, and the electromagnetic theory provides it with momentum p =E/c, so it has relativistic mass P/P/V = E/C 2. However, the expression M =γM 0 is not suitable for a photon whose γ is infinite.
But writing the photon mass as M=γm0 will not lead to any contradiction, because we define that the rest mass of photon is zero.
Above: A simple illustration of relativistic mass.
It seems that Lewis introduced an appropriate concept of speed-dependent mass in 1908, and then the term "relativistic mass" appeared.
However, static mass is still widely used in many fields of physics, while relativistic mass is mainly limited to the dynamics of special relativity. Therefore, the static mass of an object is often simply called "mass".
The rest mass of an object is equal to its relativistic mass at rest. When an object moves, its acceleration depends on its relativistic mass (including its rest mass, of course) and its speed.
Above: Relativistic mass does not mean that the mass of the object itself has increased (left). The ideal assumption now is that when objects move at high speed in the spatio-temporal grid, the accumulation of spatio-temporal grid will become denser with the increase of speed, thus showing higher quality (right).
When particles move, relativistic mass provides a very simple description, which can naturally be included in the description of particle motion state. For example, suppose we put an object on a set of scales, and these scales can measure incredibly small weight gains. Now heat this object. When its temperature rises, the thermal motion of its constituent particles increases, and the reading on the scale will also increase.
Summary From the above discussion, quality is not eternal or fixed, but changes according to the state of the object, because quality itself is only an effect phenomenon we observe, not the most fundamental essence of matter.
If we regard matter as a synonym of "existence", then quality is regarded as the content or quantity of matter. However, nature is an organic whole, and the existence and specific properties of anything depend on the relationship between the object and its surroundings. Only in the expression of mutual relations, the existence of objects is possible and has certain physical significance.
Such as the composition of objects. If only the object itself is considered, then any object is a closed system formed by deeper particle motion and can be decomposed indefinitely.
However, from a philosophical point of view, the division of this object is infinite. So, when a finite object is infinitely divided, what is left? This isolated thinking will only make human thinking fall into an insoluble dilemma.
If we put the existence of an object in a specific environment, that is, consider it with other objects around us, we can find the realistic physical meaning from the relationship between these objects. In this way, the original infinite philosophical problems will return to limited physical problems.
For example, if we only regard the universe as a part of nature and the existence of matter is limited to the universe, then there is an inseparable smallest particle in our universe, which is the quantum defined by Planck constant H.
The same is true of quality, which is not divorced from the material content of the surrounding things, but only relative to the external environment. Therefore, mass, as a physical parameter, is only relative and will change relative to the movement of the physical background.
Mass is a physical concept and a parameter variable corresponding to energy. Energy is a measure of particle motion ability, while mass is a measure of the spatial effect of closed particles.
The similarity between them is that they are both measures of particle motion effect, but the difference is that the existing state of particles is different. The former is open and the latter is closed. Therefore, the essence of mass-energy exchange is the change of particle existence form.
As a measure of the spatial effect of closed particles, when an object moves relative to the quantum space as the physical background, the relationship between the object and the space will inevitably change accordingly. So the mass will increase with the increase of the moving speed of the object. Therefore, the mass of an object is relative to its relationship with space.
It should be noted here that Galileo's classical theory of relativity is questionable. If there is absolute relativity, there is no essential difference between geocentric theory and Heliocentrism, but the frame of reference for describing the motion of objects is different.
However, if the theory of relativity is only relative to the specific physical background, then the motion of photons relative to objects and the motion of objects relative to photons are different and have different physical meanings. Because their motion is relative to quantum space, rather than their relative changes with each other.
So the relativity of mass is not arbitrary. Only when it moves relative to the quantum space as the physical background, it will change because of the asymmetric collision of space quantum, so that the object has more energy, thus increasing the mass.
In a word, mass is only a physical parameter describing the relationship between objects and space. Therefore, it is relative to the motion of quantum space.
The greater the mass, the greater the asymmetric spatial distribution caused by the thermal radiation of the object. In addition, the motion of the object relative to the quantum space will also cause the asymmetric distribution of the space, thus showing the increase of mass.
After reading a lot of answers, I am a little eager to draw a conclusion. In fact, this problem is very deep. There are two sub-questions:
1. What is the essential definition of quality? This is an ultra-modern physical problem, and there is not enough theoretical basis at present.
Second, what is the relationship between relative and absolute? There are too many misunderstandings about this, and even a lot of science is confused.
Let's call this article "On the Public". Answer the second sub-question first and apply the law of unity of opposites; Answer the first sub-question As a draft for comments, it is for reference only.
The relativity and absoluteness of 1 are the duality of truth, although truth is a correct proposition; However, truth has the duality of relative and absolute, and this duality is the unity of opposites.
Relativity of truth means that truth only applies to certain conditions; The absoluteness of truth refers to absolute correctness under certain conditions.
The condition of the law of inertia is that the resultant force is zero: σ f = 0, and if the limit operation is m v/ t 0, it approaches: v? =v？
The condition of entropy increase principle is a non-open system: the external environment is in an absolute decline state and there is no interference to the system.
The proposition of friends or enemies depends on the best interests. The United front of the two parties in the state of War of Resistance against Japanese Aggression; The relationship between the two parties in the war of liberation is the relationship between the enemy and the enemy.
Chamberlain said well, there are only eternal interests, but no eternal friends. However, the best interests are not necessarily economic interests.
It must be pointed out that wrong or flawed propositions are not truth, and truth has neither relativity nor absoluteness.
For example, the premise of Lorentz transformation (γ factor for short) is that light is emitted by a light source and the field medium is not excited by the light source, so the inference of this factor is a false proposition.
The law of conservation of mass also has the duality of truth. All classical principles and laws are truth under certain conditions, so they all have relative and absolute duality. But the so-called "principle" that is misled or flawed is not included.
All conservation laws, such as mass ~, energy ~, momentum ~, charge ~ and information ~, are non-open systems under certain conditions.
There is no doubt about the macroscopic conservation of mass, especially in the field of chemistry. Microscopically, especially in nuclear physics, there seems to be mass defect and mass explosion (Higgs mechanism), but in fact the γ factor is misleading.
For example, in the famous electron-positron annihilation equation, that is: e +e +2? m？ c？ γ +γ +2hc/λ？ Some people say that the mass of electrons is completely lost and converted into energy.
In fact, the energy on both sides is equal: 2? m？ c？ = 2hc/λ； The masses on both sides are also equal: 2e = 2γ = 20.51=1.02mev/c? .
Obviously, we would rather abide by the law of logical self-consistency than self-contradiction, and we would rather abide by the principle of conservation of mass and transformation:
Mass is the structural gross index of a substance,
Here, electrons are deconstructed or degenerated into photons, electrons rapidly expand into photons, and electron mass is converted into photon mass: electron mass photon mass.
Energy is an indicator of the total amount of material activities,
Electronic kinetic energy is converted into electromagnetic radiation energy? m？ c？ =hc/λ？ ...(2) , λ? =4.85pm, which is the shortest wavelength of electromagnetic waves in the universe.
3 The essence of mass and the specific conditions of its definition This is a topic. The definition and essence of mass are related to big scientific research, such as grand unified theory and hadron mass equation. Coupled with the definition and essence of energy, it is a headache.
3. The definition of1quality needs to be re-examined.
There are three versions of the definition of mass: molar mass (based on Avogadro constant), inertial mass (based on Newton's second law) and gravitational mass (based on the law of universal gravitation).
But they didn't reveal the essence of quality, because at least there are so-called "quality defects" and "quality explosion" that can't be let go, which is against the law of conservation of quality and logically untenable.
The author has always believed that precise definition is the soul of scientific research. It is necessary to refresh the definition of basic physics from the aspects of mass, energy, wave, magnetism, electricity, field and force until it is impeccable.
3.2 Start with feelings and intuition, and cut into the texture.
Cut into this topic from the feeling and intuition about air.
Phenomenon 1: If we walk when there is no wind, we will not feel the texture of the air. Air seems to be a vacuum. However, if we run, there will be wind pressure on our faces. Why?
Phenomenon 2: Stand still when there is wind, there will be a feeling of wind, and there will be a biting cold wind in winter. But if we run with the wind and there is no wind pressure, why?
Dynamic explanation: Let the static air density be ρ? When the face area is a, as long as there is relative movement between the face and the air contact surface, the air in front of it will be squeezed and the density of local air will increase (ρ? & gtρ? ), the air pressure increases (P? & gtp？ =kρ？ ), facial wind pressure increases (f? & gtf？ =kρ？ A), the face has texture.
3.3 Air quality involves three elements.
Air quality involves three elements: particle mass (m), air volume (v) and field effect mass increment (m').
Element 1: electronic mass equivalent of particles (nm? )
Electron is the most stable minimum mass unit, and the electron mass constant can be postulated by oil drop experiment: m? = 9. 1. 10 kg ... (3).
Obviously, the particle mass (m) is directly proportional to the electron mass equivalent number (n): m=nm? ...(4)
Element 2: Volume of space occupied by air (V)
The volume of hypercoagulable state changes little because of the small distance between electrons in the nucleus, the electrons in the nucleus oscillate quickly (v=c), and the field quality increases greatly (m'=nm? r？ /r？ ) can be attributed to the Higgs mechanism. But m=m is not appropriate? / ( 1-v？ /c？ ) to explain.
The volume change of condensed matter is very small, because the distance between the electrons outside the nucleus is very small, and the electrons outside the nucleus oscillate faster (v αc), which also involves the field mass increment, but it is far weaker than the field effect of the electrons inside the nucleus.
Because of the large distance between atoms' extranuclear electrons, the gas volume changes greatly, and the oscillation speed of extranuclear electrons is slow. Therefore, the field quality increment can be ignored.
Element 3: The air velocity (V) leads to the magnetic field mass increment (M').
The essence of air flow is the speed increment of electrons (v? +v) Compressing the space field, the wavelength of the field medium is shortened by the excited electromagnetic wave, and then the density of the field medium is increased: field density increase multiple = volume contraction multiple.
Yes: p = p? (λ? /λ)? ...(5)
Or: m'=m? r？ /r？ ... (6), see the unified equations.
What else? m？ v？ =hc/λ...(7)
Yes: λ=2hc/m? v？ ...(8)
So, rho = rho (v/v？ )? ...(9)
The essence of density increment is the increment of field mass, because the electron equivalent mass (nm? ) is a constant, v? It is the original oscillation speed of the field medium with particles, and V is the final speed when the dynamic balance is achieved by filling in the blanks. V is the displacement velocity of actual airflow or flight extrusion.
Examples of field mass increase effect in gaseous and neutron states 1: Let the initial velocity of air molecules be v? =630m/s, hurricane or plane v=370m/s, then v=v? +v =1000m/s
New field density: ρ = ρ? (v/v？ )? =ρ? ( 10? /630)? = 16ρ?
Original field strength: ρ? =m？ /4.2r...( 10)
Among them, r? =λ? /2π=hc/πm？ V = 0. 175[ m]
Is there, rho? =m？ /4.2r=4.04 10 [kg/m？ ]
Furthermore, ρ= 16ρ? =6.4 10 [kg/m？ ]
This example shows that the field density contained in the air is extremely thin. Even if the sonic boom effect of supersonic aircraft is added, the density increases by 19 times, but the air density is 1.29kg/m? The contribution is also very small.
Example 2: Let the neutron mass equation be: neutron = positive and negative electrons+field medium: p (1840m? )=e (2m？ )+m'( 1838m？ ), where m' is the field quality increment. Find the radius r of neutron precursor atom.
Solution: Neutrons can be regarded as atomic radius R compressed into a nucleus with a radius of 8.5 Fermi, and electrons oscillate at the speed of light.
Photon wavelength and photon radius excited by electrons;
λ=2hc/m？ c？ = 4.85 10[ m]
r=λ/2π=0.77 10 [m]
The field mass increment excited by two electrons: m'=nm? r？ /r？
R=？ Sir? /nm？ =? 1838r？ /n
=r？ 9 19 = 0.77 10 9.7 = 7.5 10[m]
The field mass increases the radius of the atom;
R(m')=7.5pm...( 1 1)
And the news? m？ v？ = ke? /R, if v=αc...( 12),
R=2ke？ /m？ v？ = 1.05 10 = 105pm
Atomic radius according to α coefficient:
R(α)= 105pm...( 13)
R(m') and R(α), which is right or wrong? The author thinks that the former is more credible because it can explain the nuclear mass explosion and nuclear radius. According to R(m'), the velocity v around the core is opposite, and there are:
v？ =2ke？ /Rm？ =2 9 10? ( 1.6 10 )? (7.5 10 9. 1 10 )=4.82 10=67.5 10
Namely: v=8.2 10? [m/s] 3.7αc...( 14)
Let v=3.7αc be the ground state velocity of electrons, and the corresponding atomic spectral wavelength λ=2hc/m? v？ =6.5 nm, belonging to far ultraviolet.
Conclusion As an important category of basic physics, there is no self-consistent definition so far, which leads to the confusion between mass and energy, especially the contradiction between mass defect and mass explosion.
The law of conservation and transformation of mass or the immortality of matter, the chemical reaction equation becomes the mass equation after equilibrium operation. However, the nuclear reaction equation cannot be balanced into the mass equation.
Based on the qualitative increase effect of field effect, this paper attempts to quantize the "nuclear reaction equation" into "mass equation" The basic idea is that all bosons, such as mesons (W /Z? ), gluons (π/π? ), photons, phonons, neutrinos (suspected gamma photons), axions, virtual particles, commutators, propagators and gravitons are collectively called field media (quantum).
The field mass increment (m') depends on the electron oscillation speed, and the mass equation is written as: solid mass = electron equivalent+field medium, that is:
m=nm？ +m '...( 15)，m'=nm？ r？ /r？ ...( 16),
m=( 1+R？ /r？ )nm？ ...( 17)
Stop here. The new vision of physics and the frontier of business physics.