Theology: This is the synthesis of two Greek words:: ∶theos, "God" and the root dik-, "righteousness". According to Milton's explanation, it is commendable to "defend what God has done to mankind" and prove that God is right, although it sometimes seems otherwise. A core question of theism is: How can we believe that God is good and has complete authority in the face of all kinds of evils in the world? In bad people, evil things, blasphemy, hurting people; Under the influence of harmful environment, events, experiences and thoughts, people's values are constantly wasted, destroyed and destroyed, including real and potential values; In short, all the facts that lead us to say "that really shouldn't have happened", whether natural or moral, are questions that theism tries to answer. All theistic views on evil are quite consistent, that is to say, with it, higher goodness can be realized because of its existence;
The theory of human righteousness, in Christian terms, is roughly that individuals save themselves without asking the gods; This theory of human justice has become synonymous with extreme individualism and nihilism. Based on accidental pain, the theory of human relations holds that happiness can be sought by people themselves, so God is exiled. It can be seen that the theory of human righteousness and the theory of divine righteousness are opposite.
Brief introduction of Leibniz
Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz (1646 July1-1716 June114), a German philosopher and mathematician, was a rare generalist in history and was called 65438.
Major achievements; Philosophy: The peak of Chinese mainland's rationalism, monism, indicates the birth of modern logic and analytical philosophy. Mathematics: calculus, binary.
Masterpieces: The Theory of Heaven, On Monographs, On China's Natural Theology.
In order to commemorate him and his academic achievements, on July 1 day, 2006, on the occasion of the 360th anniversary of Leibniz's birth, Hanover University was officially renamed as Leibniz University in Hanover.
How to understand Leibniz's theosophy?
The Theory of Seeing Gods is the only major work published by Leibniz when he was alive.
This book, called Talking about God, is actually about people and their freedom. In the preface, the author once pointed out: "There are two famous mazes, which often lead our reason astray: one is related to the big problem of freedom and necessity, and this maze first appears on the issue of the generation and origin of evil; The second is the argument between continuity and the seemingly inseparable points of its elements, which involves thinking about infinity.
The first question puzzles almost all mankind, and the second question only puzzles philosophers. If Leibniz's other works mainly focus on monism or the relationship between continuity and inseparability, then this book focuses on the big problem of freedom and necessity or human freedom that almost puzzles all mankind.
What are Leibniz's philosophical works?
/kloc-in the second half of the 0/7th century, European science and technology developed rapidly. Due to the improvement of productivity and the urgent needs of all aspects of society, through the efforts of scientists from all over the world and the accumulation of history, calculus theory based on function and limit concept came into being.
The idea of calculus can be traced back to the method of calculating area and volume proposed by Archimedes and others in Greece. Newton founded calculus in 1665, and Leibniz also published his works on calculus in 1673- 1676.
In the past, differential and integral were studied as two mathematical operations and two mathematical problems respectively. Cavalieri, Barrow, Wallis and others have obtained a series of important results of finding area (integral) and tangent slope (derivative), but these results are isolated and incoherent.
Only Leibniz and Newton really communicated integral and differential, and clearly found the internal direct relationship between them: differential and integral are two reciprocal operations. And this is the key to the establishment of calculus.
Only by establishing this basic relationship can we establish systematic calculus. And from the differential and quadrature formulas of various functions, the algorithm program of * * * is summarized, which makes the calculus method universal and develops into a symbolic calculus algorithm.
Therefore, calculus "was mostly done by Newton and Leibniz, not invented by them". However, there has been a heated debate in the history of mathematics about the order in which calculus was founded.
In fact, Newton's research on calculus was earlier than Leibniz's, but Leibniz's results were published earlier than Newton's. Leibniz's paper "Finding a Wonderful Computing Type of Minimax" published in Teacher's Magazine on June 1684 is the earliest calculus document.
This six-page paper is not rich in content and vague in reasoning, but it is of epoch-making significance. Newton wrote in the first and second editions of Mathematical Principles of Natural Philosophy published three years later, namely 1687: "Ten years ago, in my correspondence with Leibniz, the most outstanding geometer, I indicated that I already knew the method of determining the maximum and minimum, the tangent method and similar methods, but I concealed this method in my correspondence ... The most outstanding scientist wrote back.
He also described his method, which is almost no different from mine except for words and symbols "(but this passage was deleted in the third edition and later editions). So it was later recognized that Newton and Leibniz created calculus independently.
Starting from physics, Newton used the method of * * * to study calculus. Its application was more combined with kinematics, and its attainments were higher than Leibniz's. Leibniz, on the other hand, started from geometric problems, introduced the concept of calculus by analytical method, and got an algorithm, which was more rigorous and systematic than Newton's algorithm.
Leibniz realized that good mathematical symbols can save thinking labor, and the skill of using symbols is one of the keys to the success of mathematics. Therefore, the symbols of calculus he created are far superior to Newton's symbols, which has a great influence on the development of calculus.
17 13, Leibniz published the article "History and Origin of Calculus", summed up his thought of establishing calculus, and expounded the independence of his achievements. Many Achievements of Higher Mathematics Leibniz's achievements in mathematics are enormous, and his research and achievements have penetrated into many fields of higher mathematics.
His series of important mathematical theories laid the foundation for later mathematical theories. Leibniz once discussed the properties of negative numbers and complex numbers, and concluded that the logarithm of complex numbers does not exist, and the sum of * * * conjugate complex numbers is a real number.
In later research, Leibniz proved that his conclusion was correct. He also studied linear equations and discussed the elimination method in theory. First, he introduced the concept of determinant and put forward some theories of determinant. In addition, Leibniz also founded the basic concept of symbolic logic.
1673, Leibniz specially went to Paris to build a computer that can perform addition, subtraction, multiplication, division and root calculation. This is another progress of computing tools after Pascal adder.
He also systematically expounded the binary counting method, and connected it with China's gossip, which laid a solid foundation for the modern development of computers. Rich achievements in physics Leibniz's achievements in physics are also extraordinary.
167 1 year, Leibniz published the article "New Hypothesis of Physics", and put forward the concrete principle of motion and the abstract principle of motion, holding that a moving object, no matter how small, will move with the part of the object in a completely static state. He also seriously discussed the conservation principle of momentum put forward by Descartes, put forward the rudiment of the conservation principle of energy, and published a brief proof of Descartes and others' obvious mistakes in the laws of nature in Teacher's Magazine, put forward the problem of the quantity of motion, proved that momentum cannot be used as the unit of measurement of motion, and introduced the concept of kinetic energy, which was considered as a universal physical principle for the first time.
He also fully proved that perpetual motion machine is impossible. He also opposed Newton's absolute view of time and space, arguing that "there is no space without matter, and space itself is not an absolute reality". The difference between space and matter is just like the difference between time and motion, but these things are different, but they are inseparable.
This idea later attracted the attention of Mach, Einstein and others. 1684, Leibniz pointed out in the article "New Analysis and Proof of Solid Force" that fiber can be stretched, and its tension is proportional to the elongation, so he proposed to apply Hooke's Law to a single fiber.
This hypothesis was later called marriott-Leibniz theory in material mechanics. In optics, Leibniz has also made some achievements. He deduced the law of refraction by using the extreme value method in calculus, and tried to explain the basic laws of optics by using the extreme value method.
It can be said that Leibniz's research on physics has been moving towards the goal of establishing an axiomatic system similar to Euclidean geometry for physics. The versatile Leibniz Leibniz's main goal is to find a universal method to acquire knowledge and create inventions, which has led to many mathematical discoveries.
Leibniz's versatility is rarely compared with his in history.
Spinoza, Leibniz's main viewpoint of "Deism", historical significance ~
Deism (Dei ***) is a philosophical view that appeared in England from 17 to 18 and in France from 18, mainly to cope with the impact of Newtonian mechanics on the traditional theological world view. This thought holds that although God created the universe and its rules of existence, after that, God no longer has an influence on the development of this world.
Deists advocate the principle of rationality and explain God as the original reason for depersonalization. Also known as theosophy. It was founded by L. Hulbeart, a British thinker in the17th century, and its famous representatives include J. Tholander, D. Hartley, J. priestley and others. /kloc-Voltaire, Montesquieu and Rousseau, French enlightenment thinkers in the 0 th and 8 th centuries, are also deists with certain materialistic tendencies. Deism opposes obscurantism and mysticism, denies superstition and all kinds of "miracles" that violate the laws of nature; Think that God is only "world reason" or "wisdom will"; As the "cause" or "creator" of the world, God stopped interfering in world affairs after creating the world, and let the world exist and develop according to its own laws. It is advocated that "revealed religion" should be replaced by "rational religion" or "natural religion".
Today, when we hear deism, we will associate it with "God created the world, but didn't care about it and let it develop". And/kloc-The deism put forward by Sir Hulbert of Chelbury, an Englishman in the 7th century, is to prove that our belief in God is rational and does not need the revelation of God in the Bible. He believes that Christianity is a natural religion, and some Christian beliefs have indeed surpassed natural religions. Deists regard these works as works of superstitious priests wooing believers and refuse to accept them.
Deists also oppose the realization of "prophecy" and "miracle" as the basis of God's existence. Walston severely criticized miracles. He believed that the resurrection of Christ was the result of his body being stolen by his disciples, so he was locked up and died in prison. But Shylock was inspired by this and wrote a book, Resurrection Witness Trial, which verified the witnesses in the New Testament one by one.
During the European Enlightenment, enlightenment thinkers such as Voltaire, Diderot, Rousseau, Locke and so on admired China culture, believing that the Confucian theological concept was deism. Leibniz wrote: "China has amazing morality and the philosopher's deism." [1] Atheists think that Confucius' theory is atheism. In Pierre Baylor's Critical Dictionary of Historical Philosophy, Confucianism is recorded as an atheist philosopher. Christian Wolff and others believe that Confucianism is not natural theology, but natural philosophy [2].
Thomas Paine's point of view is quite representative of the deist's point of view: "I believe in only one God and nothing else", but "I don't believe in the creed declared by Jewish church, Roman church, Greek church, Turkish church, Christianity and any church I know. My own thoughts are my own churches. "
How to understand Leibniz's theosophy?
The Theory of Seeing Gods is the only major work published by Leibniz when he was alive.
This book, called Talking about God, is actually about people and their freedom. In the preface, the author once pointed out: "There are two famous mazes, which often lead our reason astray: one is related to the big problem of freedom and necessity, and this maze first appears on the issue of the generation and origin of evil; The second is the argument between continuity and the seemingly inseparable points of its elements, which involves thinking about infinity.
The first question puzzles almost all mankind, and the second question only puzzles philosophers. If Leibniz's other works mainly focus on monism or the relationship between continuity and inseparability, then this book focuses on the big problem of freedom and necessity or human freedom that almost puzzles all mankind.
In this paper, the roles of Newton and Leibniz in the generation of calculus are discussed respectively.
Newton wrote Flow Method and Infinite Series at 167 1, and it was not published until 1736. In this book, Newton pointed out that variables are produced by the continuous motion of points, lines and surfaces, denying his previous view that variables are static of infinitesimal elements. He called continuous variables flow, and the derivatives of these flows were called flow numbers. Newton's central problems in flow number technology are: knowing the path of continuous motion and finding the speed at a given moment (differential method); Given the speed of motion, find the distance traveled in a given time (integral method).
Leibniz of Germany is a knowledgeable scholar. 1684, he published what is considered to be the earliest calculus literature in the world. This article has a long and strange name: a new method for finding minimax and tangents, which is also applicable to fractions and irrational numbers, and the wonderful types of calculation of this new method. It is such a vague article, but it has epoch-making significance. It already contains modern differential symbols and basic differential laws. 1686, Leibniz published the first document on integral calculus. He is one of the greatest semiotics scholars in history, and his symbols are far superior to Newton's, which has a great influence on the development of calculus. Leibniz carefully chose the universal symbol of calculus that we use now.