Chemistry is a science that studies the nature, composition, structure, change and application of matter. The world is made of matter, and chemistry is one of the main ways and means for human beings to understand and transform the material world. It is a discipline with a long history and full of vitality, and its achievement is an important symbol of social civilization. From the primitive society in which fire was used to the modern society in which various artificial substances were used, human beings are enjoying the fruits of chemistry. Human life can be continuously improved and improved, and the contribution of chemistry plays an important role in it.
Chemistry is one of the important basic sciences, which develops rapidly with the mutual infiltration of physics, biology, physical geography and astronomy, and also promotes the development of other disciplines and technologies. For example, the research results of nucleic acid chemistry have raised today's biology from the cellular level to the molecular level, and established molecular biology; By analyzing the chemical composition of stars such as the earth and the moon, the distribution law of elements is obtained, and the simplification of interstellar space and the existence of things are found, which provides experimental data for celestial evolution and modern cosmology and enriches the content of dialectics of nature.
The germination of chemistry
Primitive humans began to use fire, from barbarism to civilization, and at the same time began to understand and transform natural substances by chemical methods. Combustion is a chemical phenomenon. After mastering fire, human beings began to cook food; Gradually learned to make pottery and smelting; Later, I learned wine making, dyeing and so on. These products, which are processed and transformed from natural materials, have become symbols of ancient civilization. On the basis of these production practices, ancient chemical knowledge sprouted.
The ancients used to classify substances according to their properties, and tried to trace their origins and changing laws. In the 4th century BC or earlier, China put forward the theory of Yin-Yang and Five Elements, arguing that everything is composed of five basic substances: gold, wood, water, fire and earth, and the five elements are formed by the interaction of Yin-Yang and two gases. This statement is a simple materialistic view of nature. The concept of "Yin and Yang" is used to explain two opposing and interacting material forces in nature, and it is considered that the interaction between them is the root of all natural phenomena. This theory is one of the theoretical foundations of China's alchemy.
In the 4th century BC, Greece also put forward the four-element theory of fire, wind, earth and water and ancient atomism similar to the five-element theory. These simple concepts of elements are the seeds of the theory of material structure and its change. Later, alchemy appeared in China. During the Qin and Han Dynasties in the 2nd century BC, alchemy was quite popular. It spread to Arab countries in the 7th century and merged with ancient Greek philosophy to form Arab alchemy. Arab alchemy was introduced into Europe in the Middle Ages, forming European alchemy, and then gradually evolved into modern chemistry.
The guiding ideology of alchemy is to believe that matter can be transformed, and try to synthesize gold and silver artificially in an alchemy furnace or cultivate an elixir of life. They purposely burned all kinds of substances together and conducted experiments. To this end, it involves various utensils used to study the changes of substances, such as sublimators, distillers, mortar and so on. , but also created a variety of experimental methods, such as grinding, mixing, dissolving, cleaning, burning, melting, sublimation, sealing and so on.
At the same time, the properties of various substances, especially the properties of mutual reaction, are further classified and studied. All these laid the foundation for the emergence of modern chemistry, and many instruments and methods are still used in today's chemical experiments after improvement. An alchemist invented gunpowder in his experiment, discovered some elements, made some alloys, and made and purified many compounds. These achievements are still in use today.
The revival of chemistry
Since the16th century, European industrial production has developed vigorously, which has promoted the establishment and development of pharmaceutical chemistry and metallurgical chemistry, turned alchemy into life and practical application, and paid more attention to the study of material chemical changes themselves. After the scientific concept of elements was established, the scientific oxidation theory and the law of mass conservation were established through the accurate experimental study of combustion phenomenon, and then the law of constant ratio, law of multiple proportions and the law of combined quantity were established, which laid the foundation for the further scientific development of chemistry.
/kloc-At the beginning of the 9th century, modern atomism was established, which highlighted that the atomic mass of various elements is its most basic feature, and the introduction of the concept of quantity is a major difference from ancient atomism. Modern atomism made the chemical knowledge and theory at that time reasonably explained and became a unified theory to explain chemical phenomena. The molecular hypothesis is put forward, and the atomic and molecular theory is established, which lays the foundation for studying the structure of matter. After Mendeleev discovered the periodic law of elements, he not only initially formed an inorganic chemical system, but also formed a chemical theoretical system together with the atomic and molecular theory.
Through the analysis of minerals, many new elements have been found, and with the experimental verification of atomic and molecular theory, the classical chemical analysis method has its own system. The synthesis of oxalic acid and urea, the emergence of the concept of valence, the establishment of the six-ring structure of benzene and the tetrahedron of carbon valence bond, the resolution of tartaric acid into optical isomers, and the discovery of molecular asymmetry have led to the establishment of the theory of organic chemical structure, deepened people's understanding of molecular essence and laid the foundation of organic chemistry.
/kloc-In the second half of the 9th century, after introducing physical theories such as thermodynamics into chemistry, not only the concepts of chemical equilibrium and reaction rate were clearly defined, but also the direction and conditions of substance transformation in chemical reactions could be quantitatively judged. The theoretical foundations of solution theory, ionization theory, electrochemistry and chemical kinetics have been established one after another. The birth of physical chemistry raised chemistry to a new level in theory.
Chemical chemistry in the twentieth century is a science based on experiments, and experiments and theories have always been interdependent and mutually reinforcing aspects in chemical research. After entering the 20th century, influenced by the development of other disciplines of natural science, the theories, techniques and methods of contemporary science have been widely used. Chemistry has made great progress in understanding the composition, structure, synthesis and testing of substances, and has made many important achievements in theory. On the basis of inorganic chemistry, analytical chemistry, organic chemistry and physical chemistry, a new branch of chemistry has emerged.
The application of modern physical theory and technology, mathematical methods and computer technology in chemistry has greatly promoted the development of modern chemistry. /kloc-at the end of 0/9, the discovery of electrons, X-ray emission and radioactivity created conditions for the great progress of chemistry in the 20th century.
In structural chemistry, the modern nucleated atom model established by the discovery of electrons not only enriches and deepens the understanding of the periodic table of elements, but also develops the molecular theory. The application of quantum mechanics in the study of molecular structure leads to the emergence of quantum chemistry.
From the study of the molecular structure of hydrogen, the nature of chemical bonds was gradually revealed, and valence bond theory, molecular orbital theory and potential field theory were established successively. The theory of chemical reaction also goes deep into the microscopic field. Using X-ray emission as a new analytical method to study the structure of matter, we can deeply understand the crystal chemical structure of matter. There are three methods to determine the chemical three-dimensional structure: X-ray diffraction, electron diffraction and neutron diffraction. Among them, the application of X-ray diffraction method has accumulated the most accurate information of molecular three-dimensional structure.
Spectral methods for studying the structure of matter have also been extended from visible spectrum, ultraviolet spectrum and infrared spectrum to nuclear magnetic resonance spectrum, electron selective vibration spectrum, photoelectron spectrum, X-ray vibration spectrum, Mossbauer spectrum and so on. Combined with computer, a large number of materials related to material structure and performance have been accumulated, which are developing from experience to theory. With the increasing magnification of electron microscope, people can directly observe the structure of molecules.
Due to the discovery of radioactivity, the classical theory of elements has undergone profound changes. From the establishment of radioactive decay theory, the discovery of isotopes to the realization of artificial nuclear reaction and nuclear fission, the discovery of deuterium, neutrons, positrons and other basic particles, not only human understanding goes deep into the subatomic level, but also the corresponding experimental methods and theories are established; It not only realized the ancient alchemists' idea of changing elements, but also changed people's world outlook.
As a symbol of the 20th century, mankind began to master and use nuclear energy. Radiochemistry and nuclear chemistry appeared one after another and developed rapidly. Interdisciplinary disciplines such as isotope geology and isotope cosmochemistry have been born one after another. The periodic table of elements has been extended to 109 element, and overweight elements are being explored to verify the "stable island hypothesis" of elements. The theory of element origin, which depends on modern cosmology, and nuclide dating, which is closely related to evolution, are constantly supplementing and updating the concept of elements.
In terms of chemical reaction theory, due to the improvement of understanding of molecular structure and chemical bonds, classical and statistical reaction theories have been further deepened. After the establishment of the transition state theory, it gradually developed into a micro-reaction theory, studied the micro-reaction mechanism with the molecular orbital theory, and gradually established the conservation law of molecular orbital symmetry and frontier orbital theory. With the application of molecular beam, laser and plasma technology, the detection and research of unstable chemical species has become a reality, so chemical kinetics has been possible to go deep into micro-reaction kinetics at the level of single molecule or atom from classical and statistical macro-kinetics.
With the development of computer technology, great progress has been made in quantum chemical calculation, chemical statistics, chemical pattern recognition, large-scale technical treatment and synthesis of molecules, electronic structure and chemical reactions, and some of them have gradually entered chemistry education. Regarding the research of catalysis, various models and theories have been put forward, from inorganic catalysis to organic catalysis and Munch catalysis, and the role of enzymes and the relationship between their structure and function have been studied from the perspective of molecular microstructure and size.
Analytical methods and means are the basic methods and means of chemical research. On the one hand, the classical composition and composition analysis methods are still improving, and the analytical sensitivity has developed from constant to micro, ultra-micro and trace; On the other hand, in the early stage of development, many new analytical methods can be used to analyze the structure, conformation, isotope, direct determination of various active intermediates such as free radicals, ionic groups, carbene, azabine and carbaryl, and to detect short-lived metastable molecules. Separation technology is also constantly innovating, such as ion exchange, membrane technology, chromatography and so on.
Synthesis of various substances is one of the purposes of chemical research. In inorganic synthesis, ammonia is synthesized first. The synthesis of ammonia not only initiated the inorganic synthesis industry, but also promoted catalytic chemistry and developed chemical thermodynamics and reaction kinetics. Later, coordination compounds such as ruby, artificial crystal, borohydride, diamond, semiconductor, superconducting material and ferrocene were synthesized one after another.
Under the impetus of modern industrial technologies such as electronic technology, nuclear industry and aerospace technology, the production technology of various ultra-pure substances, new compounds and materials with special needs has been greatly developed. The successful synthesis of rare gas compounds poses a new challenge to chemists, and it is necessary to re-study the chemical properties of zero-group elements. Inorganic chemistry and organic chemistry, biochemistry, physical chemistry and other disciplines penetrate each other, resulting in organometallic chemistry, bio-inorganic chemistry, inorganic solid chemistry and other emerging disciplines.
The synthesis of phenolic resin opens up the field of polymer science. With the synthesis of polyamide fiber in 1930s, the concept of polymer has been widely recognized. Later, the synthesis, structure and properties research and application of polymers constantly cooperated and promoted each other, which made polymer chemistry develop rapidly.
The synthesis and application of various polymer materials provide various important materials with excellent performance and low cost for modern industry and agriculture, transportation, medical and health care, military technology and people's daily necessities, and become an important symbol of modern material civilization. Polymer industry has developed into an important pillar of chemical industry.
The 20th century is the golden age of organic synthesis. Great progress has been made in chemical separation methods and structural analysis methods. The structural problems of many natural organic compounds have been satisfactorily solved, and many new important organic reactions and specific organic reagents have been discovered. On this basis, fine organic synthesis, especially asymmetric synthesis, has made great progress.
On the one hand, various organic compounds with special structures and properties were synthesized. On the other hand, the basic substances of life, from unstable free radicals to bioactive protein and nucleic acids, were synthesized. Organic chemists have also synthesized natural organic compounds with complex structures and drugs with special effects. These achievements have greatly promoted the development of science; It provides favorable conditions for the synthesis of substances with high biological activity and the cooperation with other disciplines to solve the synthesis problems of biological substances and the chemical problems of prebiotics.
Since the 20th century, the development trend of chemistry can be summarized as: from macro to micro, from qualitative to quantitative, from stable to metastable, from experience to theory, and then used to guide design and innovative research. On the one hand, provide as many new substances and materials as possible for the production and technical departments; On the other hand, in the process of mutual infiltration with other natural sciences, new disciplines are constantly emerging and developing in the direction of exploring life sciences and the origin of the universe.
Classification of chemical disciplines
In the development of chemistry, according to the different types of molecules studied, the research methods, purposes and tasks are different, and many branches of different levels are derived. Before the 1920s, chemistry was traditionally divided into four branches: inorganic chemistry, organic chemistry, physical chemistry and analytical chemistry. Since the 1920s, due to the rapid development of the world economy, the birth of electronic theory and quantum mechanics of chemical bonds, and the rise of electronic technology and computer technology, chemical research has gained new means in theory and experimental technology, which has led to the rapid development and brand-new appearance of this discipline since the 1930s. At present, chemical content is generally divided into five categories, including biochemistry, organic chemistry, polymer chemistry, applied chemistry and chemical engineering, physical chemistry and inorganic chemistry, and actually includes seven branches.
According to the development of chemistry today and its mutual penetration with astronomy, physics, mathematics, biology, medicine, earth science and other disciplines, chemistry can be classified as follows:
Inorganic chemistry: elemental chemistry, inorganic synthetic chemistry, inorganic solid chemistry, coordination chemistry, bioinorganic chemistry, organometallic chemistry, etc.
Organic chemistry: natural organic chemistry, general organic chemistry, organic synthetic chemistry, metal and nonmetal organic chemistry, material organic chemistry, bioorganic chemistry, organic analytical chemistry.
Physical chemistry: chemical thermodynamics, structural chemistry, chemical kinetics and physical chemistry.
Analytical chemistry: chemical analysis, instrument and new technology analysis.
Polymer chemistry: natural polymer chemistry, polymer synthetic chemistry, polymer physical chemistry, polymer application, polymer material resources.
Nuclear chemistry nuclear radiochemistry: radioactive element chemistry, radioactive analytical chemistry, radiochemistry, isotope chemistry, nuclear chemistry.
Biochemistry: general biochemistry, enzyme, microbial chemistry, phytochemistry, immunochemistry, fermentation and bioengineering, food chemistry, etc.
Other frontier disciplines related to chemistry include geochemistry, marine chemistry, atmospheric chemistry, environmental chemistry, cosmic chemistry, interstellar chemistry and so on.
About chemists:
Whether they are rich or not cannot be simply measured by their income. Doing research is not the same as ordinary white-collar workers going to work to make money. You may not have studied much chemistry ~ in fact, the field of chemistry is very wide. From the basic chemistry alone, there are four courses: inorganic chemistry, organic chemistry, analytical chemistry and physical chemistry. The latter three are all difficult subjects (maybe you will learn some knowledge of organic chemistry in middle school, but you will know how difficult it is to be organic when you read books on organic chemistry in college). It is not easy to understand without a certain foundation in science. And if you subdivide it, you can study more categories. Like myself, I study pharmacy. Besides the above four courses, I also need to study medicinal chemistry, biochemistry, bioorganic chemistry and natural medicinal chemistry. Other majors also have many more detailed chemistry courses to learn.
As for what you want chemists to study, there are many subjects that can be studied as I said above. At present, the research of chemists is not done by themselves, but usually by a huge team.
The results of the research are not as simple as the experimental report submitted after our experiment, but published in the Journal of Chemistry in the form of a paper.
As for the level of mathematics, what level do you think is appropriate? Have you read any books about advanced mathematics? From the perspective of physical chemistry in basic chemistry, it is impossible to understand without certain knowledge of high numbers. Generally speaking, if we only deal with the chemistry exam at the middle school level, at most, the junior high school level, there is no problem if we calculate it carefully.
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About the study of chemistry:
To learn chemistry well, we must first remember the periodic table of elements. Generally speaking, junior high school students only need to recite the first 20 elements. In high school, as far as we are concerned, we should memorize all the elements of the main clan. Of course, there are not many tricks, so we can only say that we rely on rote memorization. Read it a few more times and you'll remember. Element symbols can be memorized according to the pronunciation of English letters, without being too rigid. After all, we say some elements, just their Chinese names.
Just buy some chemical materials that suit your level. It's too difficult to understand, too simple and too boring. It depends on personal needs.
The description of experimental phenomena only needs to describe the experimental phenomena you see. For example, if zinc powder is put into hydrochloric acid, you can describe it as "zinc powder gradually dissolves and bubbles are produced". If there is precipitation, write directly to generate precipitation of a certain color. If there is no obvious reaction, it should be truthfully written that there is no obvious phenomenon and cannot be forced. To sum up, the phenomenon can be described from two aspects: reactants and products. On the one hand, it can describe the changes of reactants, such as whether they are dissolved or not, and on the other hand, it can describe products, such as state (gas, precipitation), color, smell and so on.
Winners of previous Nobel Prize in Chemistry:
190 1 year, J.H. van der Hof (Dutch) discovered the chemical kinetics and osmotic pressure law in solution.
1902 E.H. Fisher (Germany) synthesized sugar and purine inducers.
1903 s.a. Arenius (Swedish) put forward the theory of electrolyte solution.
1904 W. Ramsey (UK) discovered the inert gas in the air.
Von Baer (Germany)
Engaged in the research of organic dyes and hydrogenated aromatic compounds.
1906 H. Movasan (France) engaged in the research of fluorine.
1907 E. Bischner (Germany) is engaged in enzyme and enzyme chemistry and biology research.
1908 E. Rutherford (UK) first put forward the theory of transmutation of radioactive elements.
1909 W. ostwald (Germany) is engaged in the research of catalysis, chemical equilibrium and reaction rate.
19 10 O. wallach (German)
The founder of alicyclic compounds
19 1 1 year m Curie (France) discovered radium and polonium.
19 12 V Greenia (France) invented Greenia reagent-organic magnesium reagent.
P Sabatti (France) invented an effective method to prepare hydrogenated unsaturated hydrocarbons by using fine metal powder as catalyst.
A. Werner (Switzerland) is engaged in the study of valence of intramolecular atoms.
1914 t.w. Richards (American) devoted himself to the study of atomic weights and accurately determined the atomic weights of many elements.
19 15 R. Wilstedt (Germany) is engaged in the research of plant pigments (chlorophyll).
1916-1917 did not win the prize.
F. Haber (Germany) invented nitrogen fixation.
19 19 has no prize.
1920 W. H. Nernst (Germany) engaged in electrochemical and thermodynamic research.
192 1 year F. Soddy (UK) engaged in the research of radioactive substances and named "isotope" for the first time.
1922 f.w. Aston (UK) discovered isotopes in non-radioactive elements and developed a mass spectrometer.
1923 F. fritz pregl (Austria) established a method for microanalysis of organic compounds.
1924 did not win the prize.
1925 Zsigmondy (Germany) engaged in the study of colloidal solutions and established colloidal chemistry.
1926 T. Svedbergh (Swedish) is engaged in the study of dispersion system in colloidal chemistry.
1927 h.o. Vilander (German)
The chemical structures of cholic acid and other similar substances were studied and determined.
1928A。 Windaus (Germany) developed a sterol family and its relationship with vitamins.
1929 A. Harden (English) and von Achler-Schepin (Sweden) expounded the process of sugar fermentation and the role of enzymes.
1930 h fischer (Germany) is engaged in the study of the properties and structures of heme and chlorophyll.
193 1 year C. Bosch (Germany) and F. Bergius (Germany) invented and developed the high-pressure chemical method.
1932 I Langmuir (USA) founded surface chemistry.
1933 missed.
Heavy hydrogen was discovered by H.C. Yuri (USA) in 1934.
1935, J.F.J Curie and I.J. Curie (French) invented artificial radioactive elements.
1936 p.j.w. debye (USA) put forward the concept of molecular magnetic coupling polar moment, and explained the molecular structure by X-ray diffraction.
1937 w.n. Haworth (UK) is engaged in the structural study of carbohydrates and vitamin C.
Pacarey (Switzerland) is engaged in the research of carotenoids, riboflavin, vitamins A and B2.
1938 R. Kuhn (Germany) engaged in the research of carotenoids and vitamins.
1939 A. Butenant (Germany) engaged in sex hormone research.
Ruzika (Switzerland) is engaged in the structural study of terpenoids and polymethylene.
1940 ——1942 did not win the prize.
1943 G. Hevesy (Hungarian) studied the process of chemical and physical changes by using radioisotope tracer technology.
1944 O. Hahn (Germany) discovered heavy nuclear fission's reaction.
1945a.i. Will Tarnum (Finnish) studied agricultural chemistry and nutritional chemistry and invented the method of fresh feed storage and maintenance.
1946 J.B. sumner (USA) isolated and purified the enzyme for the first time.
J.H. northrop and W.M. Stanley (USA) isolated and purified the enzyme and virus protein.
1947 R. Robinson (UK) engaged in the research of alkaloids.
1948 A.W.K. Tiselius (Swede) discovered electrophoresis and adsorption chromatography.
1949 w.f. jock (USA)
He has been engaged in the research of chemical thermodynamics for a long time, and the research object is the physical reaction at overtemperature.
Discovery and application of 1950 Diels-Alder reaction.
Transuranium elements were discovered by G T Seeburg and E M Macmillan (Americans) in 195 1 year.
1952a.j.p. Martin and R.L.M Singer (UK) developed and applied partition chromatography.
1953 H. staudinger (Germany) is engaged in the research of cyclic polymers.
1954 L.C. Pauling (USA) expounded the essence of chemical combination and explained the complex molecular structure.
1955 v vignord (USA)
Sulfur-containing biological substances (especially oxytocin and vasopressin) are determined and synthesized.
1956 Hinsherwood (UK)
N.N. Semenoff (Russian) put forward the chemical kinetic theory of gas phase reaction (especially branch chain reaction).
1957a.r. Todd (UK) is engaged in the research of nucleases and nucleic acid coenzymes.
1958 F. Sanger (UK) is engaged in the research of insulin structure.
1959 J. Heyrovsk, Jaroslav (Czech) put forward a very general scientific theory and discovered "extremely popular science"
1960, W.F. Leech (American) invented the "radiocarbon dating method".
196 1 year m Calvin (USA)
The mechanism of plant photosynthesis was put forward.
1962 m.f. Perut and J.C. Chen delu (UK)
The fine structure of protein is determined.
1963 K. Ziegler (Germany) and G. Natta (Italy)
The polymerization method using new catalyst was found and the basic research in this field was carried out.
1964 Huo (UK)
Determination of spatial structure of complex crystals and macromolecules by X-ray diffraction technique
1965 Woodward (USA)
Because of his contribution to organic synthesis
Maliken (USA)
The molecular orbital theory of chemical structure is established by quantum mechanics, and the essence of valence bond and electronic structure of molecules is expounded.
1967 R.G.W. Norrie Association, G. Porter (UK)
Mi (short for meter) Egan (German)
The technology of measuring rapid chemical reaction was invented.
1968 L. Onsager (USA) is engaged in basic research on thermodynamics of irreversible processes.
1969 O. hassell (Norway) and K.H.R.R. Barton (UK)
Contribute to the development of stereochemistry theory.
1970 L.F. Lerell (Argentine) discovered sugar nucleotide and its role in sugar synthesis.
197 1 year G. Herzberg (Canadian) is engaged in the research on the electronic structure and geometric structure of free radicals.
1972c banfensen (USA) confirmed the active site of ribonuclease.
1973 E.O. Fischer (Germany) and G.Wilkinson (England) are engaged in the research of organometallic compounds with multilayer structure.
1974 P.J. Flory (USA) engaged in theoretical and experimental basic research of polymer chemistry.
1975 j.w. Cornforth (Australia) studied the stereochemistry of enzyme-catalyzed reactions.
Verb (abbreviation of verb) Prelogue (Switzerland) is engaged in the study of organic molecules and stereochemistry of organic molecules.
1976 W.N. lipscomb (USA) is engaged in the structural research of borane.
1977 I I.llyaPrigogine (Belgian) mainly studied non-equilibrium thermodynamics and put forward the theory of "dissipative structure".
1978 P.D. Mitchell (UK) is engaged in the research of energy conversion on biofilm.
H C· Brown (USA) and G Wittig (Germany) developed a new organic synthesis method.
1980 P. Berg (USA) engaged in biochemical research of nucleic acids.
Gilbert (American) and Sanger (British) determined the base sequence of nucleic acid.
198 1 year, Kenichi Fukui (Japanese) and R. Hoffman (British) determined the base sequence of nucleic acid.
1982 A. Kruger (UK) developed the electron diffraction method of crystallography and studied the three-dimensional structure of nucleic acid-protein complexes.
1983 h taub (USA) elaborated the electronic reaction mechanism of metal coordination compounds.
1984 r.b. Merifield (USA) developed a very simple peptide synthesis method.
1985, J. Karl and H. A. Hauptmann (American) developed a direct calculation method to determine the crystal structure of matter by X-ray diffraction.
1986 D.R. Hirsch, Li Yuanzhe (from Taiwan Province Province, China) and J.C. Pogliani (Canada) studied the kinetic dynamics of potential energy surface of chemical reaction system.
1987 C.J. Peterson, D.J. kramer (USA)
French Ryan synthesized crown ether.
1988 J Dyson Hoff, R Huber and H Michel (Germany) analyzed the three-dimensional structure of the photosynthetic reaction center.
1989 S. altman and T. R. Cech (USA) found that RNA itself has the catalytic function of enzyme.
1990 E.J. Corey (USA) founded a unique theory of organic synthesis-inverse synthesis analysis theory.
199 1 year, R.R. Ernst (Swiss) invented Fourier transform nuclear magnetic resonance spectrum and two-dimensional nuclear magnetic resonance technology.
1992 R.A. Marcus (USA) made a contribution to the theory of electron transfer reaction in solution.
1993 K B Muhlis (American) invented the method of "polymerase chain reaction".
M Smith (Canada) pioneered the method of "site-directed mutagenesis based on oligonucleotide".
1994 g.a. Euler (USA) has made outstanding contributions in the field of oil and gas research.
1995 P. crutzen (Germany), M. Molina, F.S. Roland (USA)
The chemical mechanism affecting the ozone layer is expounded, and it is proved that artificial chemicals have a destructive effect on the ozone layer.
1996 r.f. cole (USA), h.w. klosso (UK), r.e. smalley (USA).
A new form of carbon element-Fuller ball (also called Bucky ball) C60 was discovered.
1997, P.B. Boyer (USA), J.E. Walker (UK) and J.C. Sko (Denmark) discovered the ion transport enzyme responsible for energy storage and transfer in human cells.
1998 W. Cohen (Austria) J. Pope (UK) proposed density functional theory.
1999 Ahmed Xavier (Egyptian-American) applied femtosecond spectroscopy to study the transition state of chemical reactions.
In 2000, Haig (USA), McDiarmid (USA) and Hideki Shirakawa (Japan) made great contributions to the discovery of conductive plastics.
William knowles (USA) and Noyori Ryori (Japan) are at 200 1.
Achievements in the field of chiral catalytic hydrogenation Barry Sharples (USA) has made achievements in the field of chiral catalytic oxidation.
In 2002, John B. Finn (USA) and Kenichi Tanaka (Japan) developed a soft desorption ionization method in the large-scale spectral analysis of biopolymers.
Kurt-Utry (Switzerland) determined the three-dimensional structure of biopolymer of solvent by nuclear electromagnetic vibration spectrometry.
In 2003, Agri (USA) and McNun (USA) studied cell membranes.
The 2004 Nobel Prize in Chemistry was awarded to Israeli scientists aaron ciechanover, avram hershko and American scientist owen ross for their discovery of ubiquitin-regulated protein degradation. In fact, their achievement is to discover an important mechanism of protein's "death".
In 2005
The three winners are Yves Chauvin of French Petroleum Research Institute, Robert Grabs of California Institute of Technology and Richard R. Schrock of Massachusetts Institute of Technology. They won the prize for their contribution to the study of olefin translocation in organic chemistry. Olefin metathesis reaction is widely used to produce drugs and advanced plastics, which makes the production efficiency higher, the products more stable and produces less harmful waste. The Academy of Science of the Royal Swedish Academy said that this is an important example of basic science benefiting human beings, society and the environment.
2006
Roger kornberg, an American scientist, won the 2006 Nobel Prize in Chemistry for his contribution to the field of "Molecular Basis of Eukaryotic Transcription".