First, western learning spread to the east.

In the late Ming and early Qing Dynasties, the greatest contribution of Catholic priests from Europe and the West was to spread western culture to China. Before the Song and Yuan Dynasties, the spread of European and American cultures to the East was often indirect, scattered and vague. It was not until the late Ming and early Qing Dynasties that western missionaries translated western academic works into Chinese and introduced them to China. Many theories about things were unheard of in China at that time. The content is as follows:

literature

Matteo Ricci is the author of Miracle in Western Languages, which uses Latin Pinyin to annotate and read Chinese characters. Then there is Trigault Nicolas, who wrote a book about Western Confucianism, in which he also talked about Latin Pinyin and Zhuyin. Its organization is more complete than Miracle in the Western Language, and it is the earliest work for westerners to introduce Latin. At that time, many domestic scholars were influenced by it, and Fang Yizhi's works were elegant, and he once quoted this book.

The Dutch occupied Taiwan Province Province and once set up schools to teach local people Latin. At that time, scholars' application documents were all in Latin, and they were called "red hair" by friends. So in the late Ming and early Qing dynasties, many people knew Latin.

(2) Astronomical calendar

During the Ming and Qing Dynasties, the greatest contributions of western missionaries to China were astronomy and calendars. First, in the thirty-eighth year of Wanli, because the solar eclipse was not checked, mistakes were found in the old calendar, and Li Zhizao and the five senses were neglected by Zhou. Please adopt the western calendar to improve the old one, and recommend western priests such as Diego de Pantoja, Niccolo Longobardi and Xiong Sanba. The imperial court did not adopt it, but there was a rebellious trend of thought in Nanjing, and there was an order to ban Christianity and expel it. Later, it continued to the apocalypse and Chongzhen years, and the eclipse error appeared again. Neither the old big calendar nor the Hui Hui calendar has been proved. Ming Sizong accepted Xu Guangqi's suggestion and set up a calendar bureau to preside over the revision of the new calendar under the supervision of Guangqi. That is to say, Chen Wu, the original year of Chongzhen, is the first year of the new calendar, called Chongzhen calendar. Li Zhi had been hired to recruit priests, Deng, Giacomo and. After the opening ceremony, Xu Guangqi, together with Li Zhizao and Long Huamin, began to study and watch translated books. Li Zhi died early in the second year, and Xu Guangqi died in the sixth year of Chongzhen. When Guangqi was seriously ill, Li Tianjing, a former Shaanxi provincial judge who was familiar with western learning at that time, was recommended to continue to preside over the calendar. Later, in the seventh year of Chongzhen, there were 100 volumes of almanac, divided into eleven parts, called Chongzhen almanac, also known as the western new law almanac. In the sixth year of Chongzhen, twenty-six articles were discussed. Although the calendar died, it was not implemented. Later, the Qing soldiers entered the customs, that is, the new calendar developed by western priests was adopted, and Tang Ruowang was appointed as an imperial supervisor. After the soup, ferdinand verbiest was used as Qin's.

Ferdinand verbiest's death, together with me (Philip Gerry Malary), Xu Risheng (Thomas Parela), Dai Jinbao (ignatius kogler), (Aumigny Kus-Perenin), Gao Shen Si (Joseph D. EsPi Na), Tang (Alexander de Guweiya), Bi Xueyuan (Kajetanas Pires).

This paper introduces the translation of western astronomical calendars. Important works include the Gankun Style Theory, Honggaitong Fairy Picture, Gregorian Calendar Theory, Celestial Theory, Quanyi Theory, Gregorian Calendar, Gregorian Calendar, Lunar Calendar, Eclipse Calendar and Li Tianjing, etc. There are some books compiled by western priests in the early Qing Dynasty, such as Tang Ruowang's Works, Calendar Spreading to the West, Kangxi Yongnian Calendar, Encyclopedia of Calendar Images, and Examination of Instrument Images.

It was the manufacture of astronomical instruments that was introduced into China at the same time as written works. During the Chongzhen period, the Calendar Bureau was established, and under the guidance of western missionaries such as Deng and Giacomo, various new astronomical instruments were produced. Including seven kinds of political instruments, accommodation instruments, flat armillary sphere, solar eclipse instrument, celestial globe, globe, sundial and clock. Later, most of these musical instruments were destroyed by the thief Li Zicheng.

Tang Ruowang and ferdinand verbiest inherited the Qin Tian basket and rebuilt it. Among astronomical instruments, telescope is the most important instrument for observing astronomical phenomena. The earliest telescope was brought by Matteo Ricci, and the Ming people called it a thousand-mile telescope. When Xu Guangqi presided over the calendar, he copied several commemorative cymbals and named them "Peeping".

(3) Geography

The first person who introduced modern world map knowledge to China was Dou Dekun. When Matteo Ricci first arrived in Duanzhou, he drew a map of Kunyu Mountain as a gift. Jin Jing paid an audience with Zong Shen for twenty-eight years. In addition to icons and chimes, he once entered a map of the world. The so-called world map is the world map at that time, with explanations. In addition, Li painted many pictures about Kunming and the whole world. At that time, people in China lamented that they had never had it, and those who were good at it were carving and spreading it. At that time, there were many different versions of Li's world map. The characteristics of Lee's world map are as follows: (1) The place described is round; (2) existing latitude and longitude; (3) The existence of the north and south poles and the equator, and the length of the north and south days and nights; (4) Apart from the world maps of Europe, Asia and Matteo Ricci, the most famous one is Giulio Aleni's Official Career, which was written in Yu Tianfang for three years.

Giulio Aleni's works are based on the geographical information of Matteo Ricci and Diego de Pantoja, and his personal experience is recorded. It was Yang who revised and published it. Most of the content is about the local customs around the world. At the beginning, it is a map of the whole world, followed by a description by continent, and finally by the four seas. The content of this book is the most detailed in Europe, especially in Italy, because ehrlich is Italian.

After Matteo Ricci and Giulio Aleni, there was a complete map of Kunyu drawn by Ferdinand ferdinand verbiest, which was completed in the 13th year of Kangxi. The picture consists of two hemispheres, including Kun Yu and Illustration. One volume is a book of self-interest and love for things, and the other is a newly added material.

(4) Mathematics

The earliest Chinese translation of mathematics was Euclid's Elements of Geometry, which was translated by Matteo Ricci and Xu. The book was written in thirty-five years of Wanli, and consists of six volumes (the first volume is about triangles, the second volume is about straight lines, the third volume is about circles, the fourth volume is about the shape of circles, and the fifth and sixth volumes are about proportions), but the translation is not the whole of the original book. Five years after its publication, Xu revised it with Diego de Pantoga and Xiong Sanba.

In addition to the original geometry, the following books are all important translations of mathematics:

1. More significantly, in the thirty-six years of Wanli, Li Zhizao and Matteo Ricci jointly translated the theory of the inner and outer beginnings of the circle, which belongs to the geometric category.

2. Significance of measurement: In the thirty-fifth year of Wanli, Xu Guangqi and Matteo Ricci jointly translated and discussed the measurement method of high depth and wide distance.

3. The whole meaning of measurement: written by Xu and Giacomo, including plane triangle and spherical triangle.

4. Synonymous arithmetic refers to: Li Zhizao wrote according to Li Mabao's instructions, and the content is mathematics, including four arithmetic and reduction.

5. Grand Exam: compiled in the calendar presided over by Xu during Chongzhen period, which quoted Ptolemy's mathematical theorem.

Since western missionaries introduced western mathematical principles to China, China scholars have been deeply influenced by them, and various mathematical works on western law have appeared, such as Gou Gu Yi (written by Xu Guangqi), Tian Tong (written by Feng Xue), Geometry Theory (written by Du Zhigeng), Calendar Arithmetic (written by Mei Wending), Cutting Eight Diagrams (written by Huang Zongxi), etc.

(5) Physical machinery

(1) Illustrated Strange Objects in Far West: Illustrated Strange Objects in Far West is the first mechanical work in China and the first monograph devoted to introducing western physics. The original book was dictated, edited and drawn by Deng. Wang Zhengzi Fu Liang,No. Kuixin, was born in Jingyang, Shaanxi. Twenty-two years of Wanli, Juren, two years of apocalypse, Jinshi. He was baptized into Catholicism and was closely related to western missionaries Deng and Giniger. Wang Zheng had better study physics. In addition to making illustrations of strange objects, he also made all kinds of machinery, which was called the resurrection of Zhu Gekongming by fellow villagers. The book "Illustrated Qi Qi" focuses on pictures and explains them. There are as many as 66 names of mechanical objects and 29 names of power, and their principles include mechanics such as lever, pulley and screw. Gaiden Han Yu was originally a friend of physicist Galileo, and his knowledge of physics was influenced by Galileo.

In addition to the illustrations of strange devices, Wang Zheng also wrote illustrations of new devices, which were made for the machines he invented himself. According to Wang's works, the wonders he made by using the knowledge of western physics include siphon, crane drink, wheel reward, self-grinding, bicycle, heavy loader, crossbow bolt, igniter, tiller, spiral ladder, folding ladder and so on.

(2) Taixi Water Law: The book Taixi Water Law written by Xiong Sanba, with a total of six volumes, introduces the methods of taking, storing and using water in the West. Because water conservancy is related to agricultural irrigation, Xu Guangqi later wrote a complete book "Agricultural Administration", and the water conservancy part copied the book. Later, in the early years of the Qing Dynasty, palace buildings such as the water spray tower in Yuanmingyuan adopted western water law and were supervised by western missionary soil.

(3) Clocks and small toys: Among the items Matteo Ricci paid tribute to Beijing, bells and clocks were most interested by the Ming emperors. Before Matteo Ricci, Luo Mingjian, who came to China, gave Governor China a dzmz. Later, in the thirty-eighth year of Wanli, he came to Jinnige Pavilion in China and also brought clocks and watches to pay tribute.

Besides clocks and watches, there are also small toys and musical instruments that can be operated automatically. In the late Ming and early Qing dynasties, this kind of clock was imported in large quantities, and it was especially loved by emperors and nobles in China. There are many records about clocks and watches in various note novels. When the Qing Dynasty flourished, there was a special "clock room" in Yuanmingyuan to entertain western priests who managed clocks and watches. Up to now, the most exquisite clocks and watches are still preserved in the Forbidden City. From the input of clocks and various small automatic toys, and Wang Zheng's illustrations of grotesque objects, it seems that this small machine technology and its knowledge have been widely introduced into China society in the late Ming Dynasty.

Second, the spread of middle schools to the west.

Western missionary soil was introduced from the East, introducing western learning to China, and at the same time spreading some China knowledge to the West, forming a cultural exchange. However, they introduced more western learning to China and less western middle schools.

The first is the spread of China Confucian classics to the West. Matteo Ricci came to Guangdong, China, and first translated these four books into Latin and sent them back to Italy. This is the beginning of the western translation of the four books, which was in 1593 (twenty-one years of Wanli). Then in 1626 (the sixth year of the apocalypse), the Belgian missionary Giniger translated the Five Classics into Latin and published it in Hangzhou, China. Later, in the early years of Qing Dynasty, western missionaries generally translated a large number of China scriptures and sent them to Europe, claiming that China's ethics and philosophy were profound and profound, which caused waves in European ideological circles. They once yearned for China very much, which will be mentioned later when we talk about Qing history.

The second is Seaver of China Medicine, a Polish priest named Bomig, who presented credentials to the Pope on behalf of Queen Li Yong. He once wrote a book in Latin, which contained examples of Chinese medicine, and described how China people treated diseases by looking at their tongues and 289 medical names. This is the first book to introduce China medicine to the west.

China's exquisite arts and crafts, such as silk and porcelain, were introduced to Europe by merchants a long time ago, while Chinese garden architecture was introduced to Europe only in the Ming and Qing Dynasties, which once became a trend and was also influenced by missionaries. 1750, W. Chambers, the architect of the King of England, built a completely Chinese-style building for the Duke of Kent, including a carved fence, a jade building, a rockery and a pagoda. In an instant, this trend spread to France and Germany and was liked by some German lawyers. The German Earl Kassel built a special village in China. All its decorations are imitated by China, and even the women in the village wear China's clothes. Another German gardener, Ludwig A. Unier, wrote a book about the pavilions of China gardens, which are beautiful and fascinating. Unless European architects are neat and solemn, they can't compare with those who have nothing to share.

Cultural exchanges between China and the West in Qing Dynasty

The communication between China and the West has a history of at least 2,000 years, during which the relationship is intertwined and the cultural exchange is stained. The introduction of modern western learning into China can be divided into two stages: the first stage began in the Wanli period of the Ming Dynasty, flourished in the Kangxi period of the Qing Dynasty and ended in the Qianlong period; The second stage began with the Westernization Movement from Xianfeng to Tongzhi in Qing Dynasty.

The import of western learning in the late Ming and early Qing dynasties was a secondary reason for Jesuits to preach. Its input is mainly astronomy, followed by mathematics, followed by physics, and the rest of geography, technology, mining, language, art and philosophy are subordinate. Astronomy is the largest building in China, and astronomy and mathematics are the only ones with the deepest relationship with academic groups in Qing Dynasty.

After the spread of western learning to the east, it caused the reaction of subjective neo-Confucianism, which made Ganzi people familiar with astronomy and mathematics at the same time. His generation has acquired new tools in archaeology, so the wind of sorting out ancient astronomy and mathematics is in full swing. Astronomical mathematics focuses on induction, and the representative figures of sinologists are intensively studied, which makes sinology research spare the scientific spirit. However, since Yongzheng banned teaching, there was no chance to introduce western learning except in Qin dynasty. 18th century is an era of prosperity and decline in the early stage of modern Chinese and western cultures. European missionaries, especially French priests, continued to spread China culture to the west. 1735 (13th year of Yongzheng), he first published the quarto China Tongzhi in Paris. The second is the long-term periodical communication collection of Nashu missionary; Thirdly, from 1776 (forty-one years after Qianlong) to 18 14 years, Chinese series were published one after another, with a total volume of 16, which expounded the culture of China, and translated The Complete Mirror and its own sequel by De Maila method, which was widely circulated. In addition to academic works, the series has its own interpretation. Pierre Han Guoying wrote many articles to explain the consequences of European scholars, politicians and missionaries who worshipped China culture in China in the18th century. He knows that China has a superb culture, and everyone attaches importance to spiritual life. This is a country that loves peace and tranquility.

China's culture had a great influence in the west because of the prohibition of teaching in Yongzheng and the interruption of western learning. /kloc-European scholars in the 0/8th century, such as German Ray Bunitz and French Voltaire, spoke highly of China's ethical philosophy. Lexler founded the Berlin Science Association to communicate the cultures of China and Europe.

Voltaire even wrote a play The Orphan of Zhao in the Yuan Dynasty, which was highly praised. China's plays, which are very human and reasonable, reverberate in European theaters. Another physiocratic scholar, Quesnay, often quoted Confucius as saying that agriculture is the foundation of wealth. Later, French King Louis XV took the initiative to imitate China and reclaim his native land. Quesnay wanted to inherit Confucian orthodoxy and was called Confucius in Europe. Goethe said in his famous play Faust that "the crystallization of human nature" refers to China people. Look at Europe in18th century. Due to the spread of China classics to the west, the Enlightenment movement of respecting rationality and freedom was promoted in the west, and aristocratic politics and monarchical politics were corrupted in the west, which led to the upsurge of reform.

In the18th century, the interest in the sinicization of Europe spread widely, although France was the center. Britain also sells China culture from France, so that most China books described in French are translated into English. The French have long known that, however, from the translation of the Four Books and Five Classics, we can't understand all aspects of China, and we can't understand the living conditions of ordinary people in China. It is a copy of China's novels and operas, and European versions of Zhao's Orphan and Good Biography also appear in Europe.

1747 (the 12th year of Qianlong), the Jesuits' communication resumed their concern for China gardens, which made Europe crazy about "China gardens" in the middle of18th century. The characteristics of China gardens are imitating nature and approaching nature by manpower, which makes them integrate with art in the uncertain changes of landscape, making people feel beautiful and pleasant, and the gardening art of Ming gardens can be expressed. At the same time, this kind of Chinese-style garden aroused the interest of westerners in China's architecture, painting and plants, and became the pursuit of the integration of China's thought and art. As far as its influence is concerned, European art came into being in the Rococo era in the middle of18th century, which is characterized by paying attention to fantasy, liveliness and vividness. By using China's soft and elegant curves and oval exquisite patterns, the Chinese-style garden layout in Europe became popular in the buildings of princes and nobles. This fanaticism made China's clothing, porcelain, fans, lacquerware, silks and satins, embroidery, cabinets and other appliances spread to Europe. It was not until the end of18th century that Europeans' enthusiasm for China culture began to disappear.

/kloc-in the 9th century, Europeans had only a vague impression of China. After the Opium War, western culture followed its ship across the ocean, which made China culture suffer an unprecedented impact. When China was shocked, he launched the Westernization Movement in Tongguang, aiming at imitating the western military industry, technology and culture. After the defeat of the Sino-Japanese War of 1894-1895, he launched the Reform and Reform, actively imported legal and political knowledge, and gradually expanded to philosophy, thought, education, economy, society and other disciplines. After the Russo-Japanese War, Germany and Japan were imitated and copied, hoping to educate new talents and reform the powerful country. Looking at the late Qing Dynasty, western culture rushed into the foundation of China's old culture, and China's input of western culture gradually expanded. The scope exceeds any period in history. To play the role of cultural exchange, western priests, foreign embassies, businessmen and international students should be promoted first. Especially after the Sino-Japanese War of 1894-1895, with the vigorous establishment of domestic associations, newspapers and magazines, overseas students and domestic intellectuals undertook the work of cultural exchange.

In the tide of western culture, many intellectuals also spread China culture to the west. Among them, Gu Hongming made the greatest contribution to the systematic English translation of China's academic masterpieces. Gu, a native of Tongan, Fujian, studied in Britain in his early years, entered Edinburgh University to major in English literature, and then went to Leipzig University in Germany to study engineering. Go back to the shogunate of Zhang Zhidong and do English translation. He once wrote Yuan Hua in English, emphasizing the profoundness of China culture. The translation of The Analects of Confucius, The Doctrine of the Mean and The University, which promotes national culture, are all heroes of cultural exchange between China and the West, just like the translations of Yan Fu, Lin Shu and Liang Qichao.

Since then, the profound Chinese culture has been injected with new blood, which can rejuvenate when the national culture is declining.

At the time of frequent foreign invasions, China intellectuals, while adhering to the enterprising spirit of traditional incense, maintained their own inherent superior culture, integrated into the western new industrial civilization, and made innovations, thus finding a modern development path for the suffering nation-state.

In fact, western civilization, especially science and technology and democratic political system, is the goal pursued by almost all backward countries, not just China. Since the middle of19th century, all human beings in the world have launched an unprecedented fanatical "industrialization" competition. The shortcomings of modern western civilization are also exposed at this time, especially the result of industrialization, environmental pollution, lack of resources, the emergence of social problems and the horror of nuclear destruction, which makes human beings feel extremely empty and hesitant mentally. The western land of knowledge has gradually realized the value of China culture. For example, the British historian Toynbee once called on beautiful women to accept the ancient teachings of China's ethics and pay attention to the spiritual strength of Chinese civilization in order to save the crisis facing mankind. China culture has been rigorously tested in unprecedented changes, which has once again attracted the attention of the world and proved its great objective value. Today's world is turbulent, and the eastern and western cultures are intertwined into a very complicated confluence. At this time, China culture should not only integrate the mainstream western thoughts, but also go beyond the ideological category and shoulder the task of solving all-round problems of mankind. I believe that China culture will have a brilliant future. -