It should be useful to you.
These must be remembered.
First, compulsory books
Thread theory
1. Organisms have the same material basis and structural basis.
Structurally, all living things except viruses are composed of cells. Cell is the basic unit of organism structure and function.
3. Metabolism is the general name of all chemical changes in living cells and the basis of all life activities of organisms.
4. Organisms are stressed, so they can adapt to the surrounding environment.
All living things have the phenomena of growth, development and reproduction.
6. The characteristics of biological heredity and variation keep each species basically stable and constantly evolve.
7. Organisms can adapt to a certain environment and also influence it.
Chapter I Material Basis of Life
8. The chemical elements that make up an organism can be found in inorganic nature, and no chemical element is unique to the biological world, which shows that the biological world and the abiotic world are unified.
9. The fact that the content of chemical elements that make up an organism is very different between organic and inorganic nature shows that there are still differences between the biological world and the abiotic world.
10. All life activities of all kinds of creatures must never leave water.
1 1. Sugar is an important component of organisms, the main energy substance of cells, and the main energy substance of organisms for life activities.
12. Lipids include fats, lipids and sterols. These substances generally exist in organisms.
13. protein is an important organic compound in cells, and all life activities are inseparable from protein.
14. Nucleic acid is the genetic material of all living things, which plays an extremely important role in the genetic variation of living things and the biosynthesis of protein.
15. None of the compounds that make up an organism can complete a certain life activity alone. Only by organizing them organically in a certain way can they show the life phenomena of cells and organisms. Cells are the most basic structural forms of these substances.
Chapter II Cell, the Basic Unit of Life
16. Various metabolic activities in living cells are closely related to the structure and function of cell membranes. Cell membrane has certain structural characteristics of fluidity and functional characteristics of selective permeation.
17. Cell walls can support and protect plant cells.
18. Cytoplasmic matrix is the main site for metabolism of living cells, which provides necessary substances and certain environmental conditions for metabolism.
19. Mitochondria are the main places for aerobic respiration of living cells.
20. Chloroplast is an organelle for photosynthesis in mesophyll cells of green plants.
2 1. endoplasmic reticulum is related to the synthesis of protein, lipids and sugars, and is also a transport channel for protein and other substances.
22. Ribosomes are places where protein is synthesized in cells.
23. Golgi apparatus in cells is related to the formation of cell secretions, and is mainly used for processing and transporting protein; Golgi apparatus is related to the formation of cell wall during plant cell division.
24. Chromatin and chromosome are two forms of the same substance in cells at different times.
25. The nucleus is the place where genetic materials are stored and copied, and it is the control center of cell genetic characteristics and cell metabolic activities.
26. The structure of the parts that make up a cell is not isolated from each other, but closely related and coordinated with each other. Cells are an organic whole, and only by maintaining their integrity can they complete various life activities normally.
27. Cells proliferate in the form of division, and cell proliferation is the basis for the growth, development, reproduction and inheritance of organisms.
28. The significance (characteristic) of cell mitosis is that the chromosomes of the mother cell are accurately and evenly distributed to the two daughter cells after replication, thus maintaining the stability of genetic traits between biological parents and offspring, which is of great significance to the inheritance of organisms.
29. Cell differentiation is a permanent change, which occurs in the whole life of an organism, but reaches its maximum in the embryonic period.
30. Highly differentiated plant cells still have the ability to develop into complete plants, that is, to maintain cell totipotency.
Chapter III Biological Metabolism
3 1. Metabolism is the most basic feature of living things, and it is also the most essential difference between living things and nonliving things.
32. Enzyme is a biocatalytic organic substance produced by living cells, most of which are protein and a few are RNA.
33. Enzyme catalysis has high efficiency and specificity; It needs proper temperature and pH value.
34.ATP is the direct energy source of metabolism.
35. Photosynthesis refers to the process that green plants use light energy through chloroplasts to convert carbon dioxide and water into energy-storing organic matter and release oxygen. All oxygen released by photosynthesis comes from water.
36. Infiltration must meet two conditions: one is to have a semi-permeable membrane, and the other is to have a concentration difference between the solutions on both sides of the semi-permeable membrane.
37. The absorption of mineral elements by epidermal cells in the mature area of plant roots and osmotic water absorption are two relatively independent processes.
38. Sugar, lipid and protein are convertible, conditional and mutually restrictive.
39. The somatic cells of higher multicellular animals can only exchange materials with the external environment through the internal environment.
40. Under the regulation of nervous system and body fluids, a normal body maintains a relatively stable internal environment through the coordinated activities of various organs and systems, which is called steady state. Steady state is a necessary condition for normal life activities.
4 1. For organisms, the physiological significance of breathing is manifested in two aspects: one is to provide energy for the life activities of organisms, and the other is to provide raw materials for the synthesis of other compounds in the body.
Chapter IV Adjustment of Life Activities
42. The phototropism experiment found that the part that feels light stimulation is at the top of the coleoptile, while the part that bends to light is at a section below the top.
43. The effects of auxin on plant growth are usually twofold. This is related to the concentration of auxin and the type of plant organs. Generally speaking, low concentration promotes growth and high concentration inhibits growth.
44. Seedless fruit can be obtained by coating a certain concentration of auxin solution on the pistil stigma of unpolluted tomatoes (cucumbers, peppers, etc.). ).
45. The process of plant growth and development is not regulated by a single hormone, but by multiple hormones.
46. Hypothalamus is the center of the body to regulate endocrine activities.
47. Related hormones have synergistic and antagonistic effects.
48. The basic way for the nervous system to regulate various activities of animals is reflex. The structural basis of reflection activity is reflex arc. 49. Neurons can generate and conduct excitement after being stimulated; Excitement is transmitted between neurons through synapses, and the transmission of excitement between neurons can only be one-way.
50. In the central nervous system, the higher center that regulates the physiological activities of human beings and higher animals is the cerebral cortex.
5 1. The main way for animals to establish acquired behavior is conditioned reflex.
52. Judgment and reasoning are the most advanced forms of animal acquired sexual behavior development, and they are the functional activities of the cerebral cortex, which are also acquired through learning.
53. In animal behavior, hormone regulation and neuromodulation are coordinated, but neuromodulation is still dominant.
54. Animal behavior is formed under the coordination of nervous system, endocrine system and motor organs.
Chapter V Reproduction and Development of Organisms
55. The offspring produced by sexual reproduction have the genetic characteristics of their parents and have greater vitality and variability, so they are of great significance to the survival and evolution of organisms.
56. Vegetative reproduction can enable offspring to keep their parents' characteristics.
57. As a result of meiosis, the number of chromosomes in new germ cells is reduced by half compared with the original germ cells.
58. Synaptic homologous chromosomes are separated from each other during meiosis, which indicates that chromosomes have certain independence. When two homologous chromosomes randomly move to which pole, different pairs of chromosomes (non-homologous chromosomes) can be freely combined.
59. During meiosis, the number of chromosomes is halved in the first meiosis.
60. A spermatogonia undergoes meiosis to form four sperm cells, which undergo complex changes to form sperm.
6 1. Oocytes undergo meiosis to form only one egg cell.
62. For sexually reproducing organisms, meiosis and fertilization are very important for maintaining the number of chromosomes in somatic cells of each offspring, as well as for the inheritance and variation of organisms.
63. For sexually reproducing organisms, the starting point of individual development is the fertilized egg.
64. There is no endosperm in mature seeds of many dicotyledonous plants because endosperm is absorbed by embryos during the development of embryos and endosperm, and nutrients are stored in cotyledons for later seed germination.
65. The formation of plant flower buds marks the beginning of reproductive growth.
66. The individual development of higher animals can be divided into two stages: embryonic development and post-embryonic development. Embryo development refers to the development of fertilized eggs into larvae. Post-embryonic development refers to the development of sexual mature individuals after larvae hatch from egg membrane or endogenous from mother.
Chapter VI Inheritance and Variation
67.DNA is a substance that causes stable genetic changes of R-type bacteria, and various characteristics of phage are also passed on to offspring through DNA. These two experiments prove that DNA is genetic material.
68. Modern scientific research has proved that genetic material contains RNA in addition to DNA. Because the genetic material of most organisms is DNA, DNA is the main genetic material.
69. The ever-changing base pair sequence constitutes the diversity of DNA molecules, and the specific base pair sequence constitutes the specificity of each DNA molecule. This explains why organisms have diversity and specificity at the molecular level.
70. The transmission of genetic information is accomplished through the replication of DNA molecules.
The unique double helix structure of 7 1.DNA molecule provides an accurate template for replication; Through base complementary pairing, replication can be accurately guaranteed.
72. Descendants are similar to their parents in traits, because they have obtained copies of DNA copied by their parents.
73. Genes are DNA fragments with genetic effects. Genes are arranged in a straight line on chromosomes, which are the carriers of genes.
74. Gene expression is achieved by controlling the synthesis of protein by DNA. 75. Because different genes have different deoxynucleotide sequences (base sequences), different genes contain different genetic information. (that is, the deoxynucleotide sequence of a gene represents genetic information).
76. The sequence of deoxynucleotides in DNA molecules determines the sequence of ribonucleotides in messenger RNA, and then determines the sequence of amino acids, and finally determines the specificity of protein's structure and function, thus making organisms show various genetic characteristics.
77. All genetic traits of organisms are controlled by genes. Some genes control the metabolic process by controlling the synthesis of enzymes; Another situation in which genes control traits is to directly affect traits by controlling the structure of protein molecules.
78. The phenomenon of gene segregation: When two organisms with a pair of relative characters are hybridized, the first generation only shows dominant characters; In the second generation, the phenomenon of character separation appeared, and the quantitative ratio of dominant characters to recessive characters was close to 3: 1.
79. The essence of gene segregation is that it is located on a pair of homologous chromosomes in heterozygote cells and has certain independence. When an organism undergoes meiosis to form a gamete, the alleles will separate with the separation, enter two gametes respectively, and be passed on to the offspring independently with the gametes.
80. Genotype is the memory factor of trait expression, while phenotype is the expression form of genotype.
The essence of the law of free combination of 8 1. genes is that the separation or combination of non-allelic genes located on non-homologous chromosomes does not interfere with each other. In the process of meiosis to form gametes, alleles on homologous chromosomes are separated from each other, and non-alleles on non-homologous chromosomes are freely combined.
82. In the breeding work, people use the method of hybridization to recombine the genes between different species of organisms purposefully, so as to combine the excellent genes of different parents to create new varieties beneficial to human beings.
83. There are two main methods to determine biological sex: one is XY type, and the other is ZW type.
84. Genetic variation comes from three sources: gene mutation, gene recombination and chromosome variation.
85. Gene mutation is of great significance in biological evolution. It is the fundamental source of biological variation and provides raw materials for biological evolution.
86. Genetic recombination through sexual reproduction provides an extremely rich source of biological variation. This is one of the important reasons for the formation of biodiversity and is of great significance to biological evolution.
Chapter VII Evolution of Organisms
87. The process of biological evolution is essentially a process of changing the gene frequency of a population.
88. The basic view of modern biological evolution theory with natural selection as the core is that population is the basic unit of biological evolution, and the essence of biological evolution lies in the change of gene frequency of population. Mutation and gene recombination, natural selection and isolation are three basic links in the process of species formation. Through their comprehensive action, the population differentiates and eventually leads to the formation of new species.
Chapter VIII Biology and Environment
89. Light plays a decisive role in the physiology and distribution of plants.
90. The survival of living things is influenced by many ecological factors, which are isomorphic with the living environment of living things. Living things can only survive if they adapt to the environment.
9 1. Biology and environment depend on each other, restrict each other, and also influence and interact with each other. Biology and environment are an inseparable and unified whole.
9 1. In a certain area, individuals of the same species form a population, and different populations form a community. The characteristics of population, the change of population number and the structure of biological community are closely related to various ecological factors in the environment.
9 1. In various types of ecosystems, there are various types of biological communities. In different ecosystems, the species of organisms and the structure of communities are different. However, all types of ecosystems are a unified whole in structure and function.
94. The energy source of ecosystems is sunlight. The total amount of solar energy fixed by producers is the total energy flowing through this ecosystem. These energies flow step by step along the food chain (net).
95. For an ecosystem, there is often an inverse relationship between resistance stability and resilience stability.
All living things on the earth, together with their inorganic environment, constitute the largest ecosystem on the earth-the biosphere.
97. The formation of biosphere is the result of long-term interaction between geophysical and chemical environment and biology.
98. The biosphere is the product of the co-evolution of life and environment on earth, and it is a unified whole formed by the interaction between life and inorganic environment.
99. The structure and function of the biosphere can remain relatively stable for a long time, which is called biological homeostasis.
100. From the point of view of energy, continuous solar energy is the driving force for the biosphere to maintain normal operation. This is the energy base on which the biosphere depends.
10 1. From the material point of view, the atmosphere, hydrosphere and lithosphere provide all kinds of necessary substances for the survival of living things. The three-pole structure formed by producers, consumers and decomposers in the biosphere connects the complete loop from inorganic matter to organic matter, and the organic matter is decomposed into inorganic matter for recycling after multi-level utilization by various organisms. The biosphere can be said to be a self-sufficient ecosystem, which is the material basis for the existence of the biosphere.
102. The biosphere has multi-level self-regulation ability.
103. There are three main sources of sulfur dioxide in the atmosphere: combustion of fossil fuels, volcanic eruption and microbial decomposition.
104. Biodiversity includes genetic diversity, species diversity and ecosystem diversity. Biodiversity is the foundation of human survival and development, and it is a precious wealth for human beings and future generations. Protecting biodiversity means adopting conservation strategies and measures at the genetic, professional and ecosystem levels.
105. The reasons why biodiversity is threatened are: First, the change and destruction of the living environment; Second, predatory development and utilization; Third, environmental pollution; Fourth, the invasion or introduction of alien species into areas lacking natural enemies often threatens the original rich resources in these areas.
Second, the elective book
foreword
1. The main reason of the food crisis is that the growth of grain output can't keep up with the growth of population, and the cultivated land is decreasing year by year. From the biological point of view, the process of grain production is essentially the process of crop photosynthesis? .
2. A large amount of chemical fertilizer can ensure the demand of crop growth for nutrients such as nitrogen, phosphorus and potassium, thus increasing grain yield, but at the same time it will cause soil hardening and environmental pollution.
3. By using certain technical means, more crops can also have the ability of direct or indirect nitrogen fixation, which can not only improve the yield of these crops, but also reduce the application of chemical fertilizers and environmental pollution.
4. Cultivating new crop varieties is also an important way to increase grain output. However, the cross breeding cycle is long, and it is difficult to overcome the obstacle of distant cross incompatibility; Mutation breeding has great blindness. By breeding new varieties through genetic engineering and cell engineering, other biological genetic materials that determine traits can be introduced into crops.
The characteristic of bioengineering is to use the renewability of biological resources to produce products at normal temperature and pressure, thus saving resources and energy and reducing environmental pollution.
Chapter one? Regulation of human life activities, nutrition and immunity
6、K+？ That is, eat more and row more, eat less and row less, and don't eat, so patients who can't eat for a long time should pay attention to supplementing potassium salt appropriately.
7. When people drink insufficient water, lose too much water in the body or eat too salty food, the osmotic pressure of extracellular fluid will increase, thus stimulating the osmotic pressure receptor in the hypothalamus.
8. When the blood potassium content increases or the blood sodium content decreases, it can directly stimulate adrenal gland to increase aldosterone secretion, thus promoting renal tubules and collecting ducts to regulate Na+? Re-absorption and K+ secretion, maintaining the balance of blood potassium and blood sodium content.
compulsory course
1, the basic unit of protein _ amino acid, its basic constituent elements are C, H, O and N.
2. The structural general formula of amino acid: R peptide bond: —NH—CO—
︳
NH2-C-COOH
︱
H
3. Number of peptide bonds = number of water molecules removed = _ number of amino acids-number of peptide chains
4. Polypeptide molecular weight = amino acid molecular weight x number of amino acids -x number of water molecules 18.
5. nucleic acid types DNA: and RNA；; Basic components: carbon, hydrogen, oxygen, nitrogen and phosphorus.
6. The basic unit of 6.DNA: deoxynucleotide; The basic unit of ribonucleic acid: ribonucleotide
7. The composition of nucleotides includes: 1 molecular phosphoric acid, 1 molecular pentasaccharide and 1 molecular nitrogenous bases.
8.DNA mainly exists in the nucleus and contains bases A, G, C and T;
RNA mainly exists in cytoplasm and contains bases a, g, c and u;
9. The main energy substance of cells is sugar, and the direct energy substance is ATP.
10, glucose, fructose and ribose are monosaccharides;
Sucrose, maltose and lactose are disaccharides;
Starch, cellulose and glycogen belong to polysaccharides.
1 1. Lipids include fats, phospholipids and sterols.
12, a large number of elements: c, h, o, n, p, s, k, Ca, Mg(9 kinds).
Trace elements: iron, manganese, boron, zinc, copper and molybdenum (6 kinds)
Basic elements: carbon, hydrogen, oxygen and nitrogen (4 kinds)
The most basic element: C( 1 species)
Main elements: carbon, hydrogen, oxygen, nitrogen, phosphorus and sulfur (6 kinds)
13. Forms of water in cells: free water and bound water.
14, cells contain the most compound: water.
15. The inorganic salt in hemoglobin is Fe2+ and the inorganic salt in chlorophyll is Mg2+.
16, the cell membrane model accepted by most scholars is called fluid mosaic model.
17. Composition of cell membrane: protein, lipid and a small amount of sugar. The basic skeleton of cell membrane is phospholipid bilayer.
18, the structural characteristics of cell membrane are: fluidity; Functional characteristics: selective permeation.
19, with double membrane organelles: mitochondria and chloroplasts;
Cell organelles without membrane structure: ribosome and centrosome;
The organelle called "power workshop" is mitochondria;
There are "nutrient manufacturing workshops" and "energy conversion stations" called chloroplasts;
There is a "machine that makes protein" called ribosome;
There is a "digestion workshop" called lysosome;
The organelles related to animal cell mitosis in animals and some lower plants are centrosomes.
The organelle related to the formation of plant cell wall and the secretion of protein by animal cells is Golgi apparatus.
20. The structure of the nucleus includes: nuclear membrane, chromatin and nucleoli.
The role of the nucleus: it is the place where genetic materials are stored and copied, and it is the control center of cell metabolism and heredity.
2 1, the most important difference between prokaryotic cells and eukaryotic cells: whether there is a nucleus bounded by nuclear membrane.
22. The transmembrane transport modes of substances from high concentration to low concentration are: free diffusion and auxiliary diffusion; The modes of transportation that need carriers are: auxiliary diffusion and active transportation; The transportation mode that needs energy consumption is: active transportation.
23. Chemical essence of enzymes: most of them are protein, and a few are RNA.
24. The characteristics of this enzyme: high efficiency, specificity and mild action conditions.
25. The name of ATP is adenosine triphosphate, and the structural formula is: a-p ~ p ~ p, and ATP is the direct of all life activities.
Energy is called energy "currency".
26, ATP and ADP conversion reaction formula: ATPase ADP+Pi+ energy.
27, animal cells to synthesize ATP, the energy needed from the role of breathing;
Plant cells need energy to synthesize ATP from photosynthesis and respiration.
28. There are two kinds of pigments in leaves: chlorophyll and carotenoids. The former includes chlorophyll a and chlorophyll b.
The latter includes carotene and lutein. These four pigments are distributed on thylakoid membranes of chloroplasts.
29. Chlorophyll mainly absorbs blue-violet light and red light, while carotenoids mainly absorb blue-violet light. So the photosynthetic efficiency of blue-violet light and red light is higher.
30. Reaction formula of photosynthesis: See compulsory 1 P 103.
3 1, the oxygen released by photosynthesis, its oxygen atoms come from water.
32. In the experiment of extraction and separation of green leaf pigment, the function of anhydrous ethanol is to dissolve pigment, the function of silica is to make grinding sufficient, and the function of calcium carbonate is to prevent pigment from being destroyed.
33. The chromatographic liquid can't reach the thin thread of the filtrate, so as to prevent the pigment on the thin thread of the filtrate from dissolving into the chromatographic liquid, which leads to the failure of the experiment.
34. On the filter paper strip after pigment separation, the order of pigment bands from top to bottom is: carotene, lutein, chlorophyll a and chlorophyll b..
35. Photosynthesis includes two stages: light reaction and dark reaction. The site of the former is thylakoid membrane, and the site of the latter is chloroplast matrix.
36. Photoreaction provides [H] and ATP for dark reaction.
37. Aerobic respiratory response formula: see compulsory P 93.
38. two reactions of anaerobic respiration: see compulsory P 95,
39. The main feature of mitosis is that chromosomes and spindles appear, and then chromosomes are evenly distributed to two daughter cells.
40. Causes of cell differentiation: selective expression of genes.
4 1. A Fehling reagent for detecting reducing sugar, which consists of 0. 1g/ml NaOH solution and 0.05g/ml CuSO4 solution, reacts with reducing sugar to generate brick-red precipitate. Pay attention to the use of current when using.
42. Sudan III dye solution and Sudan IV dye solution can be used to identify fat in biological tissues. The former dyes the fat orange and the latter red.
43, identification of protein in biological tissue can use biuret reagent. When in use, NaOH solution is added first, and then 2~3 drops of CuSO4 solution are added. React to form purple complex.
44. The common stain for chromosome staining is gentian violet or magenta acetic acid solution.
45. In "Observing the Distribution of DNA and RNA in Cells", DNA was dyed green and RNA was dyed red with methyl green and pyron red.
46. Protoplast includes cell membrane, vacuole membrane and cytoplasm between these two membranes.
47. Janus green dye solution is a kind of living cell dye, which is specially used to dye mitochondria, which can make mitochondria in living cells appear blue-green.
48. In the process of synthesis, processing, transportation and secretion of secreted proteins, related organelles include ribosomes, endoplasmic reticulum, Golgi apparatus and mitochondria.
49. Amino acids form peptide chains through dehydration and condensation.
50. When the concentration of external solution is greater than that of cell fluid, plant cells will be separated from each other. When the concentration of external solution is less than that of cell fluid, plant cells recover after plasma wall separation.
5 1, cell membrane and other biofilms are selectively permeable (functional) membranes.
52. The places where cells breathe aerobically include cytoplasm matrix and mitochondria.
53. In aerobic respiration, glucose participates in the reaction in the first stage, water in the second stage and oxygen in the third stage. The third stage releases the most energy.
54. The larger the cell volume, the smaller its relative surface area, and the lower the material transport efficiency of the cell. The relationship between cell surface area and volume limits the growth of cells.
55. The continuous division of cells, from the completion of one division to the completion of the next division, is called a cell cycle.
56. The main change during mitosis is the completion of DNA molecular replication and related synthesis.
56, the characteristics of each stage of mitosis:
The main characteristics of the early stage are: the appearance of chromosomes and spindles, the disappearance of nuclear membrane and nucleoli;
The main characteristics of metaphase are: the centromeres of chromosomes are arranged neatly on the equatorial plate;
The main feature of the later stage is that the centromeres of chromosomes are arranged neatly on the equatorial plate:;
The late stage is characterized by the disappearance of chromosomes and spindles, and the appearance of nuclear membranes and nucleoli.
57. The dissimilation type of yeast is facultative anaerobic.
58. CO2 production in yeast culture medium can be detected by clarifying limewater or bromothymol blue aqueous solution. Carbon dioxide can change the latter from blue to green and then to yellow.
59, detection of alcohol production available orange potassium dichromate solution. Under acidic conditions, the solution reacts with alcohol and turns gray-green.
60. The significance of cell mitosis is to copy the chromosome of the mother cell and distribute it accurately and evenly to the two daughter cells.
6 1, the structure of plant cells is different from that of animal cells, mainly because they have cell walls, chloroplasts and vacuoles.
62. In the process of individual development, the offspring produced by the proliferation of one or a kind of cells have stable differences in morphology, structure and physiological functions, which is called cell differentiation.
63. The principle of plant tissue culture and utilization is cell totipotency.
64. The process in which a cell automatically ends a life determined by a gene is called apoptosis.
65. Both human and animal cells have cancer-related genes on their chromosomes: tumor suppressor genes and proto-oncogenes.
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