Omission (there are many knowledge points in multiple-choice questions over the years, and there are few repetitions and omissions)

Second, the noun explanation

1. Engel's Law: It is the changing law of consumption structure obtained by German statistician Engel in the 9th century based on statistical data. In a family or country, the proportion of food expenditure in income decreases with the increase of income. On the basis of income elasticity of demand, the income elasticity of food expenditure can be obtained by studying the reflection degree of consumer's expenditure on food on consumer's income change. Engel's law is defined by elasticity: for a family or a country, the higher the wealth, the smaller the income elasticity of food expenditure; On the contrary, the bigger.

Engel's law is based on empirical data, and it is only applicable if all other variables remain unchanged. Therefore, when investigating the change of the proportion of food expenditure to income, we should also consider the factors that affect the growth of family food expenditure, such as urbanization, food processing, catering industry and structural changes of food itself. Only when the average food consumption level is quite high, the further increase of income will not have an important impact on food expenditure.

2. Endogenous variables and exogenous variables: Mathematical economic models are generally expressed by equations or equations composed of a group of variables, and variables are the basic elements of economic models. Variables can be divided into endogenous variables, exogenous variables and parameters. In an economic model, endogenous variables refer to the variables to be determined by the model. Exogenous variables refer to known variables determined by factors other than the model, and are the external conditions for the establishment of the model. Endogenous variables can be explained in the model system, exogenous variables determine endogenous variables, and exogenous variables themselves cannot be explained in the model system. Parameter indicators refer to variables that are usually constant and can also be understood as variable constants. Parameters are usually determined by factors outside the model and can also be regarded as exogenous variables.

3. Marginal substitution rate of products: Under the premise of keeping the utility level or satisfaction level unchanged, consumers need to give up the consumption of another product every time they increase the consumption of one product 1 unit. MRS represents the marginal substitution rate of the product, and the variation of product 1 and product 2 respectively. Then the marginal substitution rate formula of product 1 to product 2 is:

When the change of product quantity tends to infinity, the formula of marginal substitution rate of product is:

4. Consumer equilibrium condition: refers to the equilibrium condition of maximizing the utility of a single consumer under a given income. The equilibrium here refers to the relative static state that consumers neither want to increase nor decrease the purchase quantity of any commodity when maximizing utility.

According to the viewpoint of cardinal utility theorists, the equilibrium condition of maximizing consumer utility is that if the monetary income level of consumers is fixed and the prices of various commodities in the market are known, then consumers should make the ratio of marginal utility to price equal. In other words, consumers should make the marginal utility of the last dollar they spend on various commodities equal. That is, where λ is the marginal utility of money.

Ordinal utility theorists combine indifference curve and budget line to explain consumer equilibrium. When any rational consumer buys goods with a certain income, its purpose is to get as much consumption satisfaction as possible. Consumer preference determines the indifference curve of consumers, and a consumer's indifference curve group about any two commodities can cover the whole coordinate plane; Consumers' income and commodity prices determine consumers' budget line. Under the condition of fixed income and known commodity prices, a consumer can only have one budget line about two commodities. Then, when a consumer is faced with an established budget line and countless indifference curves, only the tangent point between the established budget line and an indifference curve is the equilibrium point for the consumer to obtain the maximum utility level or satisfaction, and then achieve satisfaction.

5. Equal cost line: the trajectory of different combinations of two inputs or production factors purchased at the same cost. Suppose there are two production factors L and K, and the intercept of the equal cost line on the horizontal axis indicates the quantity of L that can be purchased when all the costs are used to purchase the factor L; The intercept of the isocost line on the vertical axis indicates the quantity of K that can be purchased when all the costs are used to purchase the element K, and the point between these two points indicates that various combinations of L and K can be purchased at full cost. The farther the equal cost line is from the origin, that is, the higher the position, which means the greater the total expenditure of producers on purchasing factors or inputs. The equal cost line is inclined to the lower right with a negative slope.

6. Opportunity cost: refers to the maximum income that can be obtained when a certain resource is used for a specific purpose and the abandoned resource is used for other purposes. There are three prerequisites for the existence of opportunity cost. First, resources are scarce; Second, resources have multiple production purposes; Third, the input of resources is unrestricted. When a resource has multiple uses at the same time, every decision-maker or choice subject who uses this resource will face the opportunity cost of using this resource.

7. Long-term equilibrium point of perfect competitor: The long-term equilibrium point of perfect competitor appears at the lowest point of LMC curve. At this time, the average cost of production falls to the lowest point of long-term average cost, and the price of goods is equal to the lowest long-term average cost. The long-term equilibrium condition of perfectly competitive manufacturers is: LMC=SMC=MR=AR=P=LAC=SAC. At this time, the profit of a single manufacturer is zero, and the manufacturer loses the motivation to enter or exit the industry, and the manufacturers in the industry achieve a long-term equilibrium.

8. Imperfectly competitive market: refers to the market structure with some monopoly factors relative to perfect competition. There are three main types of imperfect competition market: monopoly market, monopoly competition market and oligopoly market. The characteristics of monopoly market are: there is only one manufacturer in the market; There is no similar substitute for this manufacturer's goods; Other manufacturers cannot enter the industry. The characteristics of monopolistic competitive market are: there are many manufacturers in the industry, and each manufacturer thinks that his behavior has little influence; Manufacturers are free to enter or exit the industry; Each manufacturer produces the same but different products, which is highly replaceable, but not completely replaceable. The main characteristics of oligopoly are: a few manufacturers control all or most of the production and sales of a certain commodity; There are obstacles for new manufacturers to enter the industry; The products may or may not be the same. Imperfectly competitive market will lead to inefficient resource allocation.

9. Factor marginal income product: refers to the product of marginal material product (MPP) and marginal income (MR) when a unit factor of production is added, that is:

MRP=MPP×MR

Under the law of diminishing marginal productivity, marginal income products decrease with the increase of input of production factors, so the curve of marginal income products is a curve inclined to the lower right.

In a perfectly competitive market, the marginal revenue of the manufacturer is equal to the price, so the product curve of marginal revenue coincides with the value curve of marginal product, which is the demand curve faced by the manufacturer. In an imperfect competitive market, the price is greater than the marginal revenue, so the marginal product value curve is higher than the marginal revenue product curve. The marginal revenue product reflects the demand price and demand of the manufacturer for this factor, and together with the marginal factor cost, it determines the optimal use of this factor by the manufacturer.

10. Real price of capital under the condition of perfect competition: Under the condition of perfect competition, the principle for manufacturers to use factors is that the marginal product value of factors equals the factor price. So for capital, a factor of production, its principle of use is:

P mpk = r, which is simplified as: the actual price of capital is equal to the marginal product of capital.

Third, question and answer.

1. What are the two basic assumptions of microeconomics?

Answer: (1) The meaning of microeconomics.

Microeconomics is a science that takes a single economic subject (a single family or individual as a consumer, a single manufacturer or enterprise as a producer, a single product or factor market) as the research object, and studies how a single economic subject makes a choice when faced with a given resource constraint.

Microeconomics examines individual economic units from three levels. The first level is to analyze the economic behavior of individual consumers and producers. This paper analyzes how a single consumer makes the optimal consumption decision to obtain the maximum utility and how a single producer makes the optimal production decision to obtain the maximum profit. The second level is to analyze the decision of the single market equilibrium price. This single market equilibrium price decision is the result of the optimal economic behavior of all consumers and all producers in a single market. The third level is to analyze the equilibrium prices of all single markets and decide at the same time. This decision is the result of the interaction of all individual markets. Obviously, all the economic variables involved in microeconomics analysis are quantity, and it is in this sense that it is called microeconomics.

(2) Basic assumptions of microeconomics

Microeconomics has two basic assumptions:

First, the hypothesis of rational people. This assumption is also called the "economic man" assumption. "Economic man" is regarded as the abstraction of ordinary people in economic life, and its basicity is assumed to be selfish. The behavior of "economic man" in all economic activities is in line with the so-called rationality, that is, they are all motivated by self-interest, trying to pursue and obtain their greatest economic benefits with the minimum economic cost.

Individual rational behavior can be divided into two levels: first, human rationality is manifested in the process of establishing the goals it pursues. Secondly, once the goal is selected, rationality is manifested in the process of achieving it. The rational behavior studied by economics is mainly the rational behavior in the process of achieving the set goals. The rational hypothesis used in microeconomics mainly refers to the rational behavior in the process of achieving the established goals, and it generally does not study the rational behavior in the process of goal selection and determination. For example, the so-called rational behavior, for consumers, means that consumers have a clearly defined preference or utility function, and consumers can maximize utility under certain constraints; For producers, profit maximization can be achieved under certain constraints. In short, rational people always pursue the maximization of interests within the scope permitted by conditions.

Second, the assumption of complete information. The main meaning of this assumption is that every individual engaged in economic activities in the market (that is, buyers and sellers) has complete information about the economic situation (or economic variables). For example, every consumer fully understands the performance and characteristics of each commodity, accurately judges the degree of consumption satisfaction brought by a certain number of commodities, grasps the changes of commodity prices in different periods, and so on, so as to determine the optimal purchase quantity of commodities.

2. Illustrate the principle of the best combination of factors for manufacturers to achieve maximum output at a given cost.

A: The principle of optimal factor combination is to produce the factor combination with the maximum output at the lowest cost. In the actual production and management decision-making, the optimal combination of factors is reflected in two situations: one is the combination of factors with the largest output at a given cost; The second is the combination of factors with the lowest cost under the given output conditions.

In order to realize the optimal combination of production factors, we should consider both the equal cost line and the equal output line. Combine the equal cost line and the equal output line on a diagram, as shown in the figure, there is one equal cost line and three equal output curves, and. As can be seen from the figure, the only equal cost line AB is tangent to one of the equal output curves at point E, which is the equilibrium point of output. It said: under the given cost condition, the manufacturer should produce according to the combination of production factors at point E, that is, the labor input and capital input are summed separately, so that the manufacturer will get the maximum output.

This is because, although the output represented by the equal output curve is higher than that of the equal output curve, the only equal cost curve AB and the equal output curve have neither intersection nor tangent point. This shows that the output represented by the equal output curve is the output that the enterprise can't achieve at a given cost, because the manufacturer can only buy the combination of elements located on or within the equal cost line AB at a given cost. Look at the equal income curve again. Although the equal income curve intersects with the only equal cost line AB at two points, the output represented by the equal income curve is relatively low. Because, at this time, without increasing the cost, the manufacturer only needs to change the combination of factors from point to right or from point to left along the established equal cost line AB, so as to increase the output. Therefore, only at the tangent point e of the unique equal cost line AB and the equal output curve is the combination of factors that can achieve the maximum output under the given cost condition. Any higher output cannot be achieved at a given cost, and any lower output is inefficient.

3. Briefly describe the social losses caused by monopoly and the management of monopoly.

A: Monopoly is widespread because of natural factors such as material and technical conditions, artificial and legal factors, geographical location and scarcity of resources. Monopoly makes the allocation of resources invalid and brings unnecessary losses to social welfare, which objectively requires government regulation.

(1) Social losses caused by monopoly

(1) Complete monopoly wastes production resources and increases social costs. In a monopoly market, the price is higher than the marginal cost because of the separation of marginal income and average income of enterprises. At this time, although consumers can still exchange efficiently, society cannot provide consumers with the most needed commodity combination at the lowest cost. In an imperfect competitive market, not only can we not use the lowest-cost mode of production, but increasing production will further improve the level of social welfare, so production is not optimal.

In addition, the monopoly of technology is not conducive to technological progress; Complete monopoly manufacturers still lack the motivation to reduce costs and carry out technological innovation.

(2) The excess profits obtained by monopolists by virtue of their monopoly position aggravate the inequality of social income. Due to the implementation of low output and high price, monopolists can obtain excess profits; In addition, monopoly manufacturers also maximize consumer surplus by implementing price discrimination. All these have aggravated the inequality of social income.

(2) the government's management of monopoly

The government can adopt an anti-monopoly policy. According to different forms of monopoly, the government can take measures such as industry rectification and punishment alone or at the same time, generally according to the Anti-Monopoly Law. The basic idea of industry reorganization is to reorganize a monopoly industry into an industry containing many manufacturers and reduce market prices through competition. The higher the degree of competition in the restructuring industry, the closer the market price is to the competitive price. The measures taken can be to decompose the original manufacturers, or to remove obstacles to entering monopoly industries and provide preferential conditions for new manufacturers. To stop monopolistic behavior, we can resort to administrative orders, economic penalties or legal sanctions.

(2) The governance of the industry is mainly to take remedial measures for monopoly industries that are not suitable for excessive competition, such as aerospace, water supply and other industries. Under the condition of retaining monopoly, the government often implements price control, or double control of price and output, and taxes or subsidies are directly operated by the state. Because the purpose of government operation is not to maximize profits, the price can be determined according to marginal cost or average cost, thus partially solving the inefficiency of low output and high price caused by monopoly.

(3) Natural monopoly regulation can also be adopted, and a return on capital close to "competition" or "justice" can be stipulated for monopoly manufacturers, which is equivalent to the average market return rate that the same capital can get under similar technology and similar risk conditions. Because the return on capital is controlled at the average level, it also controls the prices and profits of monopoly manufacturers to a certain extent.

4. What measures can the government take to realize the relatively equal of social income distribution?

A: Social resource allocation and income distribution often have a dilemma between fairness and efficiency. According to the experience of various countries, the principle of the government in dealing with the relationship between the two is to achieve social equality on the basis of ensuring efficiency. That is, absolute equality in income distribution is impossible and should not be pursued. On the basis of ensuring the efficiency of market distribution, the government mainly realizes the relatively equal of social income distribution through income redistribution measures.

(1) Policy in the field of initial distribution

The first is to reduce and eliminate unreasonable or even illegal income that does not meet the requirements of the market economy. According to the viewpoint of western economics, these unreasonable and illegal income distributions are not the result of implementing market economy; On the contrary, they are the imperfect performance of the market economy and the destruction of the normal operation of the market economy. These unreasonable and illegal incomes are an important reason for the excessive income distribution gap. It is particularly worth reminding that these unreasonable and illegal income earners not only seriously worsen the income distribution, but also cause dissatisfaction among the masses, lead to social instability and affect the improvement of economic efficiency. Therefore, reducing and eliminating these unreasonable and illegal incomes can not only improve income distribution, but also improve economic efficiency.

Second, promote equal opportunities. Equal opportunity means fair competition, that is, all the contestants are on the same starting line before the competition. If some people are allowed to run a few steps first in the competition, it is not equal opportunity, but unequal opportunity. Strive for more equal employment opportunities. In other words, discrimination in employment, especially discrimination against women, must be prohibited. For example, as far as college graduates are concerned, it is often more difficult for women to find suitable jobs than men. We should also strive to achieve greater equality in access to information. Many income inequality and opportunity inequality can be traced back to information inequality. Therefore, it is also an important way to improve income distribution to provide the broadest employment, education, science and technology and market information to the broad masses of the people, especially the poor and poor areas.

Thirdly, limit the monopoly income of certain industries and individuals.

Due to the government's franchise or other reasons, such as increasing returns to scale, many monopoly enterprises often appear in the economy. These monopoly enterprises have their inherent "defects" in both production and circulation. On the one hand, according to western theory, monopoly means inefficiency. Compared with competitors, the price of monopoly manufacturers is too high and the output is too low. As a result, consumers spend more income but can only buy less goods. The welfare of the whole society has undoubtedly been damaged. In addition, the production cost of monopoly manufacturers is also very high, unlike competitors who are at the lowest point of the average cost curve. On the other hand, monopoly means unfairness. By virtue of its monopoly position, monopoly manufacturers restrict the competition of other manufacturers by restricting them from "entering" the same industry, thus obtaining huge monopoly profits. A considerable part of the phenomenon that personal income in some industries grows too fast and the income level is high occurs in these monopoly industries.

Monopoly is inefficient and unfair, and it is necessary for the government to intervene in it. For example, in order to ensure fairness, the government can set a "fair price" for monopoly enterprises. At this price level, the average income and average cost of monopoly enterprises are exactly equal. In this way, monopoly profits will no longer exist. Compared with monopoly price without government intervention, this fair price can not only improve income distribution, but also improve production efficiency.

(2) Government's income redistribution policy.

The government's specific policies and measures on income redistribution include:

① Tax policy

Taxation is an important means used by the government to change income distribution. The redistribution of taxes includes the following two aspects. First of all, it directly changes the distribution of income by levying different amounts of taxes on different people. Second, it indirectly changes the distribution of income by changing the relative price of the market. On the one hand, taxes will cause changes in the prices of production factors such as wages or profits, thus affecting the welfare of individuals and families. On the other hand, taxes will also cause changes in general commodity prices and affect the welfare of individuals and families.

To investigate the influence of a country's tax system on income distribution, we need to pay attention to three issues. First of all, we should focus on the whole tax system, that is, various taxes, not just one or several special taxes. For example, a country's individual income tax may be conducive to improving income distribution, but it cannot be concluded that the whole tax system of this country is also conducive to improving income distribution, because there may be other types of taxes that have the opposite effect. The negative effects brought by these counterproductive taxes may just offset or even exceed the benefits brought by personal income tax. As a result, the whole tax system cannot play a role or play a bad role in income distribution.

Secondly, it is necessary to analyze the true "destination" of various taxes. The so-called tax destination refers to the person who really pays the tax and bears the tax burden. For personal income tax, the object of taxation and the purpose of taxation are the same, but for many other taxes (such as sales tax and corporate profit tax). ), it is not necessarily the same. The nominal object of taxation is not necessarily the person who actually pays the tax at the end. In many cases, the taxpayer can "pass on" the tax to others. This ability depends on the nature of tax, the characteristics of the object to be taxed and the object to be passed on. For example, as a sales tax, cigarette tax is often levied on enterprises that produce cigarettes, not on smokers. However, because the price elasticity of smokers' demand for cigarettes is very small, it is easy for enterprises producing cigarettes to pass on most of the cigarette tax to smokers by raising prices.

Finally. To find out the truth of all kinds of taxes, the next thing to consider is the "progressive" nature of the whole tax system. If with the increase of income, the proportion of tax in income is increasing, which is progressive tax. The simplest way to make a tax progressive is to make the tax rate of this tax increase with the increase of income level. On the other hand, if with the increase of income, the proportion of tax in income is getting smaller and smaller, that is regressive tax. Finally, if the proportion of tax in income remains unchanged with the increase of income, it is proportional tax. Different taxes have different effects on income distribution. Progressive taxation can improve income distribution and promote equality, while regressive tax, on the contrary, will further widen the income distribution gap. Proportional tax has little effect on income distribution. Of course, taxes collected through proportional taxes (and other taxes) can be used for government transfer payments or public utilities, thus affecting income distribution.

Different taxes have different progressive nature. Personal income tax is often progressive, because its tax rate increases with the increase of income level. Other taxes are relatively complicated. For example, at first glance, the sales tax treats the rich and the poor alike, because every consumer spends the same percentage on taxable goods. However, this seemingly proportional tax is actually regressive! This is because, generally speaking, the poor spend a larger part of their income on consumption, while the rich only spend a smaller part of their income on consumption, so the proportion of sales tax paid by the poor far exceeds that of the rich. Obviously, the sales tax levied in proportion on the surface will play a role in widening the income gap.

A country's personal income tax may be progressive and play a role in improving income distribution, but other kinds of taxes may not. Whether the whole tax system is progressive or regressive, and whether the impact on income distribution is positive or negative depends on the comprehensive role of all taxes. A study in the United States believes that during the period from 1966 to 1985, although the personal income tax in the United States is progressive, the total tax burden is generally proportional, that is, all taxes paid by each American account for roughly the same proportion of their income. For example, the data of the United States 1985 shows that the minimum income of 10% households is about 22%, and the maximum income of 10% households is about 25%. The whole tax system is a little progressive, but the degree of progressiveness is very light. It can be seen that the changes in income distribution in the United States during the above period mainly did not come from taxes.

② Government expenditure

Compared with taxes, the government's spending plan seems to have a greater role in improving income distribution. However, even in this respect, it is necessary to carefully analyze the different income distribution effects that different government expenditure plans may produce.

Some government expenditure items are obviously not conducive to the improvement of income distribution. This is the case, for example, with interest payments on government bonds. In most cases, interest income mainly falls into the hands of high-income groups. Therefore, it is one of the factors that aggravate income inequality.

There are also some government-subsidized projects that seem to be beneficial to the poor at first glance, but they are not. For example, let's imagine that the government subsidizes the consumption of gasoline. As the poor also consume gasoline, they will undoubtedly benefit from government subsidies. However, the poor may consume much less gasoline than the rich. If the poorest 40% families only consume 20% of the gasoline sold in the market, then it means that the government subsidizes the poor for every L yuan, and the families with higher incomes can get subsidies from 4 yuan money! Obviously, the government's gasoline subsidy plan has not shrunk but widened income inequality.

In western society, although there are some government expenditure items that are not conducive to income distribution, we should still see that government expenditure can obviously improve income distribution in many aspects. These aspects include:

Basic food consumption subsidy scheme

Public health (such as drinking water sanitation, nutrition, health care, etc. )

Primary and secondary education (such as primary schools, ordinary middle schools, various vocational secondary schools, etc.). )

Social security plan for retired, disabled and unemployed people

Agricultural development planning (such as irrigation, soil and water conservation, rural transportation, etc.). )

Development plan for backward areas

These government expenditure projects can often improve the actual income level of poor people and poor areas to a certain extent, and reduce the income inequality of the whole society.

③ Other ways.

In addition to using various means of taxation and expenditure, the government directly changes the income distribution. The same goal can also be achieved indirectly through price control and redistribution of property rights.

There are many forms of price control in western governments, including tariff, minimum wage law, agricultural product price support, accelerated depreciation, wage-price control and so on. Like the government's tax and expenditure plan, the government's price control will also affect the price structure of the market and change the income distribution through this influence. Due to changes in market prices, some people benefit and some people suffer. For example, raising tariffs on a product will increase the income of domestic producers of the product and hurt the interests of domestic consumers. For another example, the implementation of the minimum wage law can increase the income of low-wage workers who are still working, but it will reduce the income of those who are unemployed because of the implementation of the law. In short, the income distribution effect of price control can not be ignored.

There are also various forms for the government to redistribute property rights. For example. The government relaxed the original strict restrictions on fishing, promulgated pollution control standards, promulgated food hygiene standards, and banned cigarette advertising on some occasions, and so on. Compared with price control, the redistribution of property rights often has a more violent impact on redistribution. The redistribution of property rights actually no longer only affects the price structure of the market. Instead, it has the nature of changing the so-called "rules of the game." Welcome to ask questions to 158 Education Online.