Patterns are relatively fixed patterns (patterns, numbers, images, relationships, etc.). ) abstracted from some phenomenon. Another performance is: the combination style with relatively fixed phenomenon elements.

5. The relationship between model, fact and theory

The relationship between pattern and fact and theory is: fact-pattern-theory, that is, pattern is the intermediary between fact and theory, and it is the abstraction of fact and the concretization of theory. Specifically, this method has duality: (1) pattern has a corresponding relationship with real things, but it is not a simple description of real things, but has a certain abstraction and certainty; (2) The pattern corresponds to a certain theory, which is not equal to the theory itself, but an explanation or sketch of the theory. So a theory can have many modes corresponding to it.

Types of patterns

1, by nature. There are different fields, architecture models, design models, teaching models, security models and war models.

Sun Tzu said that "rebirth after death" is the mode of war. Thirty-six strategies are all models, such as "walking is the best policy" and "empty city strategy"

Shenzhen model, Zhejiang Wenzhou model, Jiangsu Sunan model, Fujian Jinjiang model, etc.

2. According to the performance. Taking "cultural model" as an example, it can be divided into two categories: special model and universal model. Furthermore, we take Benedict's cultural pattern and Chrysanthemum and Knife as examples.

cultural pattern

Cultural model is one of the research topics in sociology and cultural anthropology.

Special cultural model refers to the unique cultural system of each nation or country. It is a unique cultural system composed of various cultural characteristics and cultural clusters. Different nations or countries have different cultures, that is, different cultural models. For example, the agriculture-led economy, huge rural population, strong family values, respect for interpersonal relationships, worship of ancestors and traditional authority are interrelated, forming China's traditional cultural model; The capitalist economy with developed industry and commerce is dominated by urban life, and individualism and presidential system are interrelated to form the American cultural model. Every cultural model must have its own consistency, otherwise, it is impossible to combine various cultural characteristics and cultural clusters to form a unique cultural model. Most scholars believe that the reason for this consistency is the unified social value standard, and some scholars believe that it is the potential will of people in a society.

Universal cultural model means that all cultures are composed of different parts, and this cultural structure is applicable to the culture of any nation. American anthropologist C. Wisler believes that the universal cultural model includes the following nine parts: ① language; ② Material characteristics; 3 art; (4) Myth and scientific knowledge; ⑤ Religious habits; ⑥ Family and social system; 7 property; (8) the government; Pet-name ruby war.

Benedict's Cultural Model

Different natural environments and different times have created different cultures, and the same and similar cultures have formed the same cultural model. Therefore, the study of cultural patterns helps us to understand the complex and diverse different cultures. In this regard, the research of American cultural anthropologist Benedict is worth mentioning. She established her authoritative position in this field by virtue of two books: Cultural Pattern and Chrysanthemum and Knife. The cultural model is the study of Indian tribes in North America. Based on Nietzsche's thinking about Dionysian spirit and Apollo spirit, she divided Indian tribes into Dionysian type and Apollo type. A. the so-called Dionysian type is related to drunkenness caused by drinking. Indians in North America and Mexico belong to this cultural model as a whole, and their behavior is often irrational, imaginative, impulsive and aggressive. B. The cultural pattern of Apollo belongs to a rational culture, and Puerro people in New Mexico in North America belong to this cultural pattern. They advocate the doctrine of the mean, adhere to the doctrine of the mean, calm, moderate and humble. C. the Dobu tribe among Indians is different from the above two cultural models. It belongs to an extremely pragmatic cultural model, and its behavior is often treacherous, suspicious, distrustful, hostile to others everywhere, cruel and lawless, which is summarized as paranoid culture by Benedict.

Chrysanthemum and Knife is Benedict's analysis of Japanese cultural patterns. At the end of World War II, entrusted by the American government, she began to study Japan's cultural model and national psychology in order to provide reference for the formulation of American policy toward Japan after the war. Surprisingly, she didn't go to Japan for field investigation. She only interviewed and inquired about Japanese expatriates and prisoners of war, and pointed out that Japanese culture is a shame culture completely different from the west, while the west is a guilty culture. It is based on Benedict's research results that the American government has formulated a completely different policy towards West Germany and successfully completed the democratic transformation of Japanese militarism.

This monograph on Japanese cultural analysis was named Chrysanthemum and Knife because Benedict found that the Japanese character was full of contradictions: "Chrysanthemum and Knife are both part of this painting. The Japanese are both aggressive and kind, martial and beautiful, arrogant and elegant, rigid and adaptable, obedient and unwilling to be pushed around, loyal and treacherous, brave and timid, conservative and good at accepting new things. All these contradictory temperament are expressed at the highest level. "

(C) the characteristics of the model

1, the pattern is representative. 2. The model has simulation value. 3. The pattern is dead.

(C) the function of the model

1 constructor. 2. Explain the function. 3. Guiding function. 4. Simplify functions. 5. Indicating function.

Second, communication methods.

Perspectives and ways of research and communication

1, research perspective

There are many perspectives to study the communication process, and there are two most common ones: one is diachronic investigation, that is, the historical evolution of communication activities is investigated according to time series; The other is the * * * time survey, which dissects and analyzes the structure, links and elements of communication activities. The former belongs to the longitudinal process research, while the latter belongs to the transverse process research. (three-dimensional space-time axis)

2. Overall mode

We study communication from these two angles. Why should the "model" method be introduced? This is because (theoretically) communication is a process of exchanging information, ideas, attitudes or feelings between individuals or groups and other individuals or groups, and it is a social behavior. This kind of behavior is common, but it is not easy to see to some extent, with fuzziness and uncertainty. However, the pattern method can "draw" some lines or formulas to express the links that do exist but can't be seen, and can show the structure, strength and direction of these links, so that the known elements and relationships can be fixed as much as possible, so as to clarify the overall image of communication, grasp its internal mechanism and laws, and make the research of communication more vivid and vivid. Obviously, on this basis, we can better discover the characteristics and movement rules of the communication process, so as to guide all the operations in the communication process and make it orderly and optimized.

So, what is the mode of communication? Through the summary, we can draw a variety of communication modes, but for the sake of understanding, we name several classic modes as point, line, plane, body and local (body layout) communication modes.

(5) Bureau-Tanaka Yoshihisa's Schema of Mass Communication Process;

(4) The system model of the Body-Riley couple and the system model of Maletzk;

(3) The circulation model of Auguste and Shi Lamu, the mass communication process model of Shi Lamu and the interactive process model of Derfler;

(2) Lane-lasswell and Shannon-Weaver models;

(1) point-seven elements: r? Breddo grams;

Five elements: Lassville;

Three elements: Aristotle and Shi Lamu;

(B) "Point" communication mode

1, the theory of three elements of communication

(1) Aristotle's "Three Elements" Theory

Aristotle, an ancient Greek, expounded the social communication behavior of "dialogue" in rhetoric. He said: "among the three elements of dialogue, namely, the speaker, the topic and the listener, it is the speaker who decides the purpose and object of speech." It requires the speaker not only to know what he says and gain the trust of others, but also to let others know his personality and pay attention to the listener's heart. "

(2) Shi Lamu's "three elements" theory.

Shi Lamu believes that communication must have at least three elements: source, information and destination.

Case 1:

In The Wedding of the Great Sage, the Monkey King said to Xia Zixian: "I once had a sincere love in front of me, and I didn't cherish it. When I lost it, I regretted it The most painful thing in the world is this. If God can give me another chance, I will say three words to that girl: I love you. If I have to add a deadline to this love, I hope. ...

This is a classic case of face-to-face confession communication. In this case, we can observe three obvious elements: one is the disseminator (sun), the other is the information (content), and the third is the receiver (fairy). These three elements are important prerequisites for establishing a communication process. Shi Lamu believes that communication must have at least three elements: source, information and destination. However, only the above three elements are not enough to form a realistic communication process, that is to say, there must be a link or channel to link these three elements, that is, the media. In the above example, because the conversation is face to face, it is generally not easy to realize the existence of the media. But even in face-to-face communication, the media still exists, but it belongs to natural sound waves or light waves, which we usually don't realize. If you call, the necessity of media is very obvious. Without telephones and telephone lines, it is impossible to spread.

With the above four elements, a communication process in the sense of physics basically has the conditions for establishment, but for communication studies that examine people's social communication behavior, this process is not complete. As far as the above example is concerned, if Sun doesn't get the response and feedback from the fairy, the process is still incomplete, and only the effect has no response. In other words, in communication, a complete communication process should include the receiver's reaction and feedback.

2. The theory of five elements of communication

In the history of communication, the first American scholar H? Lasswell. 1948, in a paper entitled "Structure and Function of Communication in Society", he first put forward five basic elements that constitute the communication process, and arranged them in a certain structural order to form a process model, which was later called "Five W Model" or "lasswell Plan". These five W's are the first letters of five interrogative pronouns in English, namely:

Who (who) said what (what) to whom (to whom) in which channel (through what channel).

With what effect (what effect)

Specifically:

(1) communicator. (2) the receiver. (3) news. (4) the media. (5) feedback.

In view of this communication phenomenon, communication researchers try to study the following questions: the scope of panic (that is, how many listeners and how many people are frightened); Why does this program make people panic, but other bizarre radio dramas don't (study the communication effect); Why does this radio play scare some people while others don't? (research audience)

3. The theory of seven elements of communication

Then there was a guy named R? In order to improve the 5W model, scholars in Breddo added two elements: under what circumstances (where) and for what purpose (why), which is called 7W model (1958).

(C) "Line" communication mode

1, the process structure of communication

(1) First of all, what is a process?

The information dissemination of human society has obvious process and systematicness.

When we say that communication is a process, we mainly mean that communication is dynamic, sequential and structured. When we say that communication is a system, we consider problems on a more comprehensive level, and regard communication as an organic whole composed of interrelated and interacting parts (or processes) and performing specific functions. The operation of this system is not only restricted by its internal structure, but also influenced by the external environment, and maintains an interactive relationship with the environment.

Process and system are two core concepts to understand the movement, universal connection and interaction of human communication activities.

(2) Secondly, the communication process is characterized by 1. The communication process is dynamic. 2. The communication process is continuous. 3. The communication process is structured.

2. Linear mode of propagation process

Later, British communication scientist D? Mcguire and others explain this model as follows.

Figure 4-1lasswell's "5W" mode

About the same time as lasswell, two American information scholars C. Shannon and W.? Weaver also put forward a process model in the article Mathematical Theory of Communication (published in 1949), which is called the mathematical model of communication process or Shannon-Weaver model. This model is as follows:

Figure 4-2 Shannon-Weaver Mathematical Model

3. Comments on linear model

Comments: lasswell's "5W" model is of great significance in the history of communication. For the first time, it clearly describes people's daily but unexplained communication activities as a process consisting of five links and elements, which provides a concrete starting point for people to understand the structure and characteristics of the communication process. In fact, the five fields of mass communication research, namely control research, content analysis, media analysis, audience analysis and effect analysis, are all formed along the lasswell model. Therefore, the core content of this course is mainly arranged according to the "5W" model, and the five elements of communication are discussed from the next class: disseminator, content, media, audience and communication effect. So that we can better grasp the key content of communication research and play a role of replacing the face with the point and simplifying it appropriately.

Shannon-Weaver model introduces the concept of noise, which further provides important enlightenment for studying the communication process.

However, both models are one-way straight-line models, lacking feedback links. If this model is fully applied to human social interaction, it will not work.

(D) Face-to-face communication

The linear (one-way) model has obvious defects in explaining the process of human social interaction: (1) It is easy to fix the roles, relationships and functions of the sender and the receiver, and one can only be the sender and the other can only be the receiver, and the roles cannot be changed; This transformation is common in human communication activities. In real life, each of us is both a communicator and a receiver. (2) The linear model lacks the elements or links of feedback and cannot reflect the interactivity of human communication.

1, circulation and interactive mode of communication process

1954, Shi Lamu in the article "How Communication Works", using C? e？ Inspired by osgood's viewpoint, a new process model called "cycle model" is proposed (Figure 4-3).

Figure 4-3 Cycle Mode of Auguste and Shi Lamu

Comments: osgood's and Shi Lamu's circular models emphasize the interactivity of social communication, and it is undoubtedly correct to regard both parties as the subjects of communication. However, this model also has its own defects.

First of all, it puts the two sides in a completely equal or equivalent relationship (at least from the perspective of the model itself), which is inconsistent with the reality of social communication. Secondly, this model can reflect the characteristics of interpersonal communication, especially face-to-face communication, but it cannot be applied to the process of mass communication.

Because of this, Shi Lamu himself realized these problems, so in the same article, he proposed another mass communication process model (Figure 4-4).

Figure 4-4 Mode of Mass Communication Process in Shi Lamu

Comments: As shown in the figure, this mode (Figure 4-4) fully embodies the characteristics of mass communication. The two sides that constitute the communication process are the mass media and the audience, and there is a relationship between communication and feedback. As a disseminator, mass media is connected with a certain source, and also connected with the audience as the object of communication through a large number of copied information. Audience is a collection of individuals belonging to their respective social groups; Individuals and individuals, individuals and groups all maintain a specific relationship. Shi Lamu's model reveals the interrelation and interweaving of social interaction process to some extent, and initially presents the characteristics of system model.

2. Melvin? Deffler feedback mode

Norbert wiener, the founder of cybernetics, published the monograph Cybernetics-Communication and Control in Animals and Machines, while Shannon founded information theory. Cybernetics uses feedback information to adjust and control system behavior. Therefore, the information exchange process of two-way information transmission with feedback is called cybernetic communication process, and the communication process mode of structural design is called cybernetic communication process mode.

Feedback refers to the form in which the output information in the control system is sent back to the original system. In information exchange, it refers to the various reactions made by the receiver after receiving the information. This shows that the information does not flow in one direction to the receiver, and the receiver will respond immediately after receiving the information. Therefore, American communication scholar Melvin? Melvin l? Defleur) developed the Shennong-Weaver model and designed an information feedback mechanism model, such as the Defleur ring model shown in Figure 4-5.

Figure 4-5 Deffler Ring Mode

Comments: Devereux interactive process model (Figure 4-5) is developed on the basis of Shannon-Weaver model, which overcomes the shortcomings of one-way straight line in the past and clearly supplements the elements, links and channels of feedback, making the communication process more in line with the characteristics of human communication and interaction. However, in Devereux's model, the only external factor mentioned is "noise", and the overall complexity of external conditions and environmental factors affecting the communication process cannot be explained by a simple concept of "noise". This shortcoming is no different from Shannon-Weaver model.

(E) "Body" communication mode

In general epistemology and scientific methodology, process and system are two similar concepts. This is because the process itself is systematic, and the system itself must be a process. This process is dynamic, orderly and structured, which is the characteristic of this system. The research process needs the organic combination of analysis and synthesis, which is the basic method of the research system.

Comments: The system is the synthesis of process, and the process is the simplification of the system.

1, a supplement to the process mode

It is necessary to investigate the microscopic and single communication process, but this kind of investigation alone cannot reveal the overall face of social communication. Any single process is not carried out in a vacuum, and its nature and result are not only determined by the internal mechanism of the process. On the contrary, many external factors and conditions will have an important impact on the process itself. A single process is not isolated, and it is bound to maintain a relationship of mutual connection, mutual interweaving and mutual influence with other processes. It can be seen that the communication process should be investigated not only from a micro perspective, but also from a meso and macro perspective. Only in this way can we have a comprehensive grasp of social interaction.

2. Dynamic mode

From 65438 to 0959, J.W. Riley and M.W. Riley, who are engaged in sociological research in the United States, put forward a striking system model in the article Mass Communication and Social System (Figure 4-6).

C= disseminator R= addressee

Figure 4-6 Riley couple's system mode

Comments: This model tells us that any kind of communication process is a certain systematic activity, and multiple structures are the essential characteristics of social communication systems: (1) Both parties engaged in communication, that is, communicators and receivers, can be regarded as an individual system, and each of these individual systems has its own internal activities, that is, interpersonal communication; (2) Individual systems are interconnected with other individual systems to form interpersonal communication; (3) Individual systems are not isolated, but belong to different group systems, forming group communication; (4) The operation of the group system is carried out in the larger social structure and the whole social system, and maintains an interactive relationship with social politics, economy, culture and ideological environment. Riley and his wife believe that mass communication represented by newspapers, radio and television is nothing more than one of various communication systems in modern society.

From this model, we can see that all kinds of social communication systems, including micro-,meso-and macro-systems, are relatively independent and are in universal contact and interaction with other systems. (Actually, it is similar to "Russian doll", and there are similarities. Every communication activity and every communication process is not only restricted by its internal mechanism, but also widely influenced by external environment and conditions. However, this interaction is not only the interaction between tangible social forces, but also the interaction between intangible social forces-social psychological factors.

Social dynamics and statics

Comte divided sociology into two parts: social statics and social dynamics. Social statics studies social system and social composition, "that is, to study the law of interaction and reaction between various components of social system without considering the basic movement of social system for the time being". It corresponds to order. Social dynamics studies the law of development and change of social system and pays attention to social progress. "This distinction is not a distinction between two facts, but a distinction between two aspects of theory." Order and progress, static and dynamic are always interrelated.

3. Dynamic and static combination mode

The system model proposed by German scholar Maletzker in his book Volkswagen communication psychology 1963 fully illustrates this point (Figure 4-7).

Figure 4-7 System Mode of Maletzk

Comments: In this model, Malezke regards mass communication as a "field" in which various social influences, including social psychological factors, interact, and every major link of this system is the meeting point of these factors or influences, including: 1. Factors affecting and restricting communicators; 2. Factors influencing and restricting the recipients; 3. Factors influencing and restricting media and information.

To sum up, Malezke's system model shows that social interaction is an extremely complicated process. Evaluating any communication activity and explaining any communication process, even the result of a single process, cannot be simply concluded, but a comprehensive and systematic analysis must be made of various factors or influences involved in the activity or process.

(VI) Communication mode of "bureau" (layout of "body")

1, the overall process structure of social interaction

Many scholars have found that American communication studies only pay attention to the narrow communication process (represented by lasswell's "five-W" process model). Although this kind of research is necessary, under this framework, many significant communication topics, such as communication and social changes, the relationship between communication and social structure and social system, are difficult to explain. To investigate these important issues, we must get rid of the narrow process research framework in the United States and open up a new research perspective.

These studies regard communication as an important category closely related to social communication forms. From this point of view, they not only analyzed the whole historical development process of human social communication, but also combined the communication process in modern society, especially the mass communication process with the macro social structure, so they were called "the whole process of social communication" research.

2, the total process research schema

Through the "mass communication process schema" proposed by Tanaka Yoshihisa in 1970, we can see the theoretical framework of "total process" research (Figure 4-8).

Figure 4-8 Tanaka Yoshihisa's "Schema of Mass Communication Process"

Comments: Based on the concept of "communication" by Marx and Engels, Tanaka divided human communication into three types: one is "energy communication" related to human physical fitness (energy in the sense of biology and physics, including thermal energy and electric energy as an extension of human physical fitness); One is the "material communication" associated with the material production of human society; One is the spiritual communication associated with spiritual production, that is, "symbol (information) communication". (About Marx and Engels' Communication Theory, it will be introduced in detail later. The communication process of symbols (information) is also based on the above two kinds of communication, and maintains a universal relationship and interaction with social productive forces, science and technology, production relations and ideology. In a class society, social communication is the embodiment of a certain class structure.

Tanaka Yoshihisa's schema puts forward many important theoretical topics in communication. Although it is not complete, it can be said to be the first system model based on historical materialism. Based on this model, Japanese scholars regard the general process of mass communication in capitalist society as the process of information production, circulation and consumption, and deeply analyze the essence of mass communication in capitalism.

Based on this model, Japanese scholars regard the general process of mass communication in capitalist society as the process of information production, circulation and consumption, and deeply analyze the essence of mass communication in capitalism. For example, in his paper "The Production Process of Mass Communication", Mr. Inaba believes that capitalist mass communication is a "movement full of contradictions", which contains both the general contradictions of capitalist production and the special contradictions of mass communication industry. In particular, Inaba analyzed the similarities and differences between material labor and mental labor, and pointed out the contradictory state of journalists, editors and other mental workers in the process of separation of "brain" and "hand". In other words, as "intelligent" individuals, spiritual workers should be the main body of knowledge and communication, but their employment status makes their "hands" unable to produce and disseminate information according to their own subjective wishes, and their labor can only unconditionally obey the needs of media capital. Inaba believes that this is the "alienation" process of spiritual workers under the capitalist system.

Japanese scholars believe that modern mass communication is closely related to the capital system, and the media, while engaging in profit-making activities, is integrated with power and plays an important role in maintaining the capitalist system and ideology. The farce of mass media news reports and the provision of a lot of entertainment content have objectively played a role of "nerve paralysis". The purpose of their study of mass communication is to arouse the awakening of modern audiences, so that they can transcend the state of "mass" and become "active communication subjects" and "rational citizens" with critical ability. In this way, Japanese scholars' research on the "total process of communication" has far broken through the framework of behaviorism and combined communication research with the whole social structure and the goal of transforming society.

Comments: The characteristics of these models are: from simple to complex, from low to advanced, from micro to macro, from local to whole. It makes our understanding of communication from clear to fuzzy to clear.