What the writer shows is, first of all, a typical window of the whole French society-the political structure of the small town of Villiers. Mayor Draena, who was born in nobility, was the highest representative of the Restoration Dynasty here, and regarded it as his bounden duty to safeguard the restoration regime and prevent bourgeois liberals from seizing power. Vanod, the director of the poor shelter, is an ordinary citizen. He got the fat job now because he took refuge in the secret organization of the Catholic Church. So as to bind themselves to the restoration regime. Father Ma Si Long, a copy of the church, is a spy sent by the church, and everyone's words and deeds are under his supervision. In this era when the throne and the altar support each other, he is a hot person. The three-headed politics of these three people reflected the situation that the restoration forces monopolized power in Villier. Their opposites are very heavy. A radical bourgeois liberal with strong economic strength. On the one hand, Stendhal described the tyranny of royalists to people, on the other hand, he made people draw the conclusion that the bourgeoisie with economic strength will also be the final winner politically. Red and Black was written before the July Revolution in 1830.

In the last ten days, I found a good time and place to study, hehe, picked up the history of western philosophy and read it through. The harvest is still a lot. I really didn't study hard when I took this course.

Philosophy, as far as I understand the word, is something between theology and science. Like theology, it contains human thinking about things that cannot be determined by exact knowledge; But just like science, it appeals to human reason rather than authority, whether it is traditional authority or inspiration authority. All exact knowledge-I advocate this point-belongs to science; All doctrines involving knowledge beyond precision belong to theology. But there is still a no man's land between theology and science; This no-man's land has created philosophy. Almost all the questions that speculative minds are most interested in are questions that science cannot answer; The confident answers of theologians are no longer as convincing as they were in the last century. P 1 1

2. Mathematics, in the sense of deductive reasoning of proof, started from him (Pythagoras); Moreover, mathematics is closely combined with a special form of mysticism in his thought. Since then, partly because of him, mathematics has had a profound and unfortunate influence on philosophy. P55

Most sciences are associated with some wrong belief forms from the beginning, which makes them have an illusory value. Astronomy is related to astrology and chemistry is related to alchemy. Mathematics combines a finer type of error. Mathematical knowledge seems reliable and accurate, and can be applied to the real world. In addition, it is obtained through pure thinking and does not need observation. So people think that it provides an ideal that knowledge of daily experience can't do. According to mathematics, people assume that thoughts are higher than senses and intuition is higher than observation. If the sensory world is inconsistent with mathematics, then the sensory world is even worse. People seek methods closer to mathematicians' ideals in various ways, and the enlightenment gained from this has become the source of many mistakes in metaphysics and epistemology. This philosophical form also started from Pythagoras. P62

4. (Socrates) It's time to die. Let's go our separate ways-I will die and you will live. Which is better, only God knows. P 125

5. The most important thing in Plato's philosophy: first, it is his utopia, the earliest one in a long list of utopias; Secondly, it is his theory of ideas, which is a pioneering attempt to solve the unresolved problems. Third, the immortality of the soul is his argument; Fourth, it is his theory of the origin of the universe; Fifth, he regards knowledge as memory rather than perception.

Reading Notes of A Brief History of Chinese Philosophy

1。 Now many westerners know that compared with people in other countries, China people have always been the least concerned about religion. For example, Professor DerkBodde has an article "The Leading Thought in the Formation of China Culture" 4, which says: "China people do not regard religious thoughts and activities as the most important and fascinating part of their lives. ..... The spiritual foundation of China culture is ethics (especially Confucian ethics), not religion (at least not a formal and organized religion). ..... All this naturally shows that China culture is fundamentally different from most other major cultures, which are dominated by monasteries and monks. "

-There is a saying in the Tao Te Ching that "the Tao is big, the sky is big, the land is big, and the king is big. There are four big ones in the area, one of which is inhabited by human beings. Man's law is based on the earth, the earth is based on the sky, the sky is based on the Tao, and the Tao is natural. " In this understanding, man is recognized as a very important force in the world, and at the same time, man is also recognized as something with considerable initiative, which may violate heaven. In order to maintain this group, we need to take some measures for what they rely on, or if they want to exist for a long time, then what they rely on is the normality of this group. Therefore, it is said that "people are everywhere, the land follows the sky, the sky follows the Tao, and the Tao is natural." This method is equivalent to loving and believing in religion. But it should be noted that this is of super moral value. It can also be considered that China's Taoist thought is fundamentally based on super-moral values, and all kinds of thoughts and religions differentiated from Taoism have the meaning of moral values only if they are used worldwide, and this application has been divorced from the essence of inaction. It can also be said that the so-called inaction is based on the super-moral value, which can easily explain why individuals with a pragmatic attitude are difficult to understand or have been misinterpreting inaction, because the ideological basis of these individuals is contrary to the basis of inaction. In this way, the ideological basis of China's self-help is super-religious. In other words, religious thought and all the political, economic, cultural and military laws in the world are just the subsidiary products of this kind of thinking and understanding, all of which are skills and spare time for saints. Any individual, whether religious or secular, who wants to seek the transcendence of life must mean inaction, that is, the transcendence of law, so that Tao has become the core thing that permeates all levels of China culture. Therefore, in such a society, religion, as the surface of Tao, can't be paid as much attention as the West. On the contrary, religion can spread with the help of loyalty, filial piety and benevolence transformed from Taoism.

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2。 Entering WTO and being born are opposites, just as realism and idealism are opposites. The task of China's philosophy is to unify these counter-propositions into a compound proposition. This is not to say that these counter-propositions have been cancelled. They are still there, but they have been unified into a whole proposition. How to unify? This is the problem that China's philosophy seeks to solve. Seeking to solve this problem is the spirit of China's philosophy.

-there has always been such a question, specifically, is it born out of nothing? In fact, "inaction" in Tao Te Ching is not the opposite of "doing something", but has the same effect as "doing nothing without doing anything". What do you mean? This is the overall melting of this concept, which makes us clearly see that the change of Tao itself is not guided by a personality or godhead. Inaction is the inherent state of Tao itself, and what state is the state of nature. In this state, nature and I are one. Since there is an integrated mass, there is no question of entry and exit, no concept of entry and exit, no possibility of conscious understanding and discrimination, or no existence at all. The discussion of difference itself establishes the concept of the world and defines the difference, which is already different. This method itself does not apply to the understanding of Tao beyond this foundation, so all its conclusions must point to absurdity.

"Zhuangzi" has "the shape of someone, no one's feelings. In human form, it is a group of people; Nobody cares, so emotions are invisible. " Dealing with interpersonal affairs is just a natural behavior of individuals in the form of people, as normal as eating and sleeping. Like the change of heaven, there should not be any deliberate elements, and the saying that the inner sage and the outer king have stood outside this nature to judge things is not the actual understanding of saints, but just a sign in the eyes of ordinary people or a helpless choice of words involving unnatural factors in the language system itself during the missionary process.

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3。 It can be said that there is no obvious connection between the speeches and articles of China philosophers, because they are not formal philosophical works. According to the tradition of China, studying philosophy is not a profession. Everyone should study philosophy, just as westerners should go to church. The purpose of learning philosophy is to enable people to be human, not to be certain people. Other learning (not learning philosophy) is to make people become a certain person, that is, a certain professional person. So there were no professional philosophers in the past; Non-professional philosophers do not have to have formal philosophical works. In China, there are far more philosophers without formal philosophical works than those with formal philosophical works. If you want to study the philosophy of these people, you can only read their quotations or letters to students and friends. These letters were written in various periods of his life, and quotations were not written by only one person. So they are not related or even contradictory, which is predictable.

-As mentioned above, the core part of China's philosophy is the exposition of Tao. Based on the nature of Tao itself, it is incompatible with the unnatural things of words, and based on the nature that Tao is pervasive and cannot be fully expounded in words. Therefore, most of the words of these so-called China philosophers are narratives, and the reasoning itself is ignored because the foundation is difficult to grasp. The so-called debate is often an enumeration of phenomena, so that phenomena are to explain Tao, and phenomena explain some "attributes" of Tao, but there is no close coherence between phenomena, so it is naturally impossible to produce so-called clear and systematic words like modern works. At the same time, this is the crux of the popularity of logic in China. In this way, the so-called suggestive expression is not the pursuit of China's artistic ideal, but a subsidiary product of Tao's inability to express. Therefore, we have been saying that we should be proud to forget these words. This kind of forgetting is not a formal forgetting, but a melting of all concepts in essence.

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4。 The social and economic thoughts of China philosophers are different from their so-called "essence" and "purpose". "Ben" refers to agriculture and "End" refers to commerce. The reason for the difference is that agriculture is related to production, while commerce is only related to exchange. Before there is exchange, there must be production first. In agricultural countries, agriculture is the main production form. Therefore, throughout the history of China, socio-economic theories and policies are all attempts to "emphasize one thing over the other".

-Why pay more attention to this than to it lies not only in the mode of production, but also in the basic understanding of the world. There is a saying in Tao Te Ching that "heaven and earth can last for a long time because they were not born by themselves, so they can live forever." "Grace can be brave, frugality can be broad, and dare to be the first in the world." "How can we be safe for a long time?" "Heaven makes up for it." Only slow development can last for a long time. If it is not enough, it will not hurt itself. Wide talents will not fluctuate because of inequality. In these understandings, I always hold the necessary behavior of "I am in heaven and earth" or the inevitable performance of seeking self-transcendence. Then it is inevitable that we should pay more attention to agriculture than commerce. We see that the development of history and the prosperity of dynasties are all due to the development of commerce, and this so-called prosperity brings inequality, decline and war. From the perspective of human survival, this kind of prosperity is really better than nothing. Therefore, to evaluate the phenomenon of attaching importance to social development, we must understand the ideological roots of ancient people in China. Otherwise, no matter whether you say its behavior is beneficial or harmful, it will become inappropriate because of your own utilitarian heart.

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5。 The reason why Taoism and Confucianism are different is that they have different rationalized or theorized expressions about the life of small farmers. Small farmers live a simple life and are naive. From this perspective, Taoism idealizes the simplicity of primitive society and condemns culture. They also idealize children's innocence and despise knowledge. Laozi said: "A small country with few people ... makes people use it again, willing to eat it, beautiful clothes, live in peace and enjoy its customs." When neighboring countries confront each other, the voices of chickens and dogs are endless, and the people are miserable. "(Chapter 80) Isn't this an idyllic picture of a small peasant country?

The difference between Taoism and Confucianism is that Taoism advocates simplicity. What is simplicity? That is, individuals live unconsciously and multiply naturally without direction, so they admire more than three generations or even primitive society. We see that the evolution of human society is exactly the longest in this period. Comparatively speaking, Confucianism advocates harmony, which is a social structure maintained through organization and coordination after consciousness. But from the Taoist point of view, this structure is unstable, and if we respect it, it will be difficult to maintain balance. If it can't keep balance, it will be damaged, which is harmful to people themselves. So we can see that although the society organized by Confucianism is generally stable, small frictions occur from time to time, and big wars and dynasty changes are inevitable. From the perspective of human existence, this is incomparable with the Taoist society of small countries and few people. It is inappropriate to take agricultural production behavior as the basis of social judgment, because from the Taoist point of view, the observation of the world is far ahead of agricultural production behavior, and it can even be said that the formation of understanding of the world is far before the formation of society. These things are the fundamental factors that affect this Taoist thought, and the formation of agricultural production mode is something after consciousness, so it is not suitable as a research basis.

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6。 Liu Xin's theory may be wrong in detail, but his attempt to seek the origins of various schools from a certain political and social environment undoubtedly represents a correct view. I quoted him in detail, because his descriptions of various schools are classic documents in China's historical materials.

It is effective to infer the changing laws of some things through historical development and social environment factors, especially for the inference and description of the whole development and change process, which often has considerable effect. But we should also see that sometimes it is not inevitable, especially for the occurrence and development of ideas. Buddhism says that ignorance breeds this complex world, but it is really difficult to find the answer to how this idea came into being. The establishment of ideological system is often based on individual behavior observed by individuals in the initial stage, which is quite accidental, especially for a relatively large and profound ideological system, which is often related to the individual state of the founder in the initial stage. It is ridiculous to treat such individuals as ordinary people and watch the ideological sparks generated by studying the influence of social factors on them. For example, we now use software to analyze and predict lottery winners. It can't be said that it is not effective, but the probability is very small. Moreover, ideological and social development itself can not be divided into two, as two things to study. More often, they are interactive and intertwined. Just like the relationship between chicken and egg, there is no obvious boundary. Moreover, the possible mechanisms of various schools are quite different, and it is self-deception to explore with a certain system. These are all things that we must understand when studying problems. Of course, none of this can deny the feasibility of analyzing things through the political and social environment.

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7。 The concept of righteousness is a concept of form, while the concept of benevolence is much more specific. The essence of people's obligations in society is their "should", because these obligations are all things he should do. But the concrete essence of these obligations is "love", that is, "benevolence". Father loves son, and son loves father. A student asked what benevolence was, and Confucius said, "Love" (on Yan Yuan). A true lover is a person who can fulfill social obligations. Therefore, it can be seen in the Analects that sometimes Confucius uses the word "benevolence", which means not only a special virtue, but the sum of all virtues. So the word "benevolent" is synonymous with all virtuous people. In this case. "Benevolence" can be translated as perfectvirtue.

Benevolence is love, which is the basis of a theory. Righteousness is to do what should be done on the basis of benevolence, and propriety is the guidance to make righteousness more specific to certain behaviors in practical behavior. From the Taoist point of view, lovers are quite subjective and cannot be used as the basis for argument. They advocate natural relations. Loosely speaking, this natural relationship contains the so-called benevolence, but it is definitely beyond the scope of benevolence. On the basis of benevolence, there must be grades, and giving is inevitable, so the so-called return is inevitable, so there can be no reciprocal relationship between individuals. Respecting this relationship is against the "likes and dislikes" of human nature. A father loves his son and must love his father, which completely ignores the conflicts that may be caused by ideological differences between individuals. If there is conflict, he will not love, or he will hypocritically respect ethics. This kind of love exists widely in society, which not only makes hypocrisy prevail, completely deviates from the essence of love, but also exerts a huge and unavoidable suppression on individual spirit. Therefore, we can see that the academic atmosphere of a hundred schools of thought contended in the pre-Qin period has never appeared since Confucianism was the only one. The relationship between people in Taoism is based on nature, and the reciprocal relationship makes it possible to exchange different opinions without ideological burden. Because there is no utilitarian purpose, nor is it for the purpose of benevolence, it completely delays the most natural relationship between individuals in the early stage of human development. There is no pressure and norms, no hypocrisy, but it has surpassed benevolence and filial piety. This is the most natural relationship between people. From this perspective, the problem of the generation gap between parents and children is not a behavioral problem, but a psychological obstacle. We always feel that the other person should do what he has done in response, and that loving the other person should love himself. These are all in return. If we can let go of these things and sincerely pay for each other without asking for feedback, then resentment will disappear with expectation, and in such an environment where we sincerely pay without giving pressure to each other, the relationship between people will move towards natural equivalence, and in this natural equivalence, those kind and filial behaviors will also be manifested as subsidiary products. So Zhuangzi said, "Benevolence, tiger and wolf." Laozi said, "A man who treats his husband with courtesy is stupid at first." And so on are quite profound, but now the big environment has been formed, and most people don't have such an atmosphere to understand these.

8。 In Zhuangzi, a Taoist work, we can see that Taoist people often laugh at Confucius, saying that he confined himself to benevolence, righteousness and morality, knowing only moral values but not super-moral values. On the surface, they are right, but in fact they are wrong. Please see what Confucius said when he talked about the development of his spiritual cultivation. He said: "I have five tenths, but I am determined to learn." Stand at thirty. Forty without confusion. You knew your destiny at the age of fifty. Sixty sounds good. Seventy years old, do what you want. Do not exceed the moment. " ("The Analects of Confucius for Politics")

-In my opinion, the so-called ridicule of Confucius in Zhuangzi is not to belittle Confucius, but to describe some of his behaviors as a Taoist seeker, identify with proper practices, and point out stupid practices. Confucius said in the Analects of Confucius: "Aim at Tao." ("Uncle") added: "Listen in the morning and die at night." (Liren) This is also an example of the homology of Confucianism and Taoism. It's just that Confucius has some deviations on the basis of exploring Tao, such as paying too much attention to benevolence and righteousness, and his impetuous mentality of joining the WTO has always been difficult to give up. Therefore, from the Taoist point of view, Confucius should be a hard-working, dedicated and diligent seeker of Tao, and he has made considerable achievements in personal cultivation, but he has always been separated from the avenue by a layer, which I think lies in his concentration on use. In the understanding of Tao, there are quite a few things that can be applied to daily life and politics, which have a considerable impact on life and politics. Moreover, these things have a great influence on people in real life, and it is difficult for ordinary people to surpass these influences. In Tao Te Ching, "words are hidden in glory, and Tao is hidden in small achievements." It is also a description of this situation. In Zhuangzi, it is said that "Fu governs saints." This is also a clear statement of Tao's status in WTO entry. Therefore, I have repeatedly stressed that although many works of Laozi and Zhuangzi mentioned and discussed governing the country, their main idea is definitely not about governing the country, but only through this important matter to illustrate the essence of Tao.

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9。 Mozi thinks that "the way of Confucianism is enough to ruin the world": (1) Confucianism does not believe in the existence of heavenly ghosts, and "heavenly ghosts are unhappy". (2) Confucianism insists on thick burial, mourning for three years after the death of parents, which wastes people's wealth and energy. (3) Confucian emphasis on music has the same consequences. (4) Confucianism believes that destiny is predestined, which makes people lazy and entrusts themselves to fate (Mozi Meng Gong). Mozi's article "Non-Confucianism" also said: "There is nothing to learn, no courtesy in the day, and no happiness in accumulating wealth. Sheng ornaments witchcraft, in order to camp monarch; Sheng is a vocal music, seeing the people with obscenity: its way is unpredictable, and its learning cannot guide the public. "

-As I said, the life described by Taoism is different from that described by Confucianism and Mohism, and it is a kind of fate to escape from everything seen in the untouchable realm. What Confucius said about life is roughly what he saw in the Book of Changes, not including his own behavior. They think it is not easy, so there are always differences, and because things in human nature will have many disadvantages, they are spurned by Mozi. For example, Mozi Meng Gong accused that "Confucianism is enough to lose the world" and there are "four strategies", one of which is: "Take life as your own responsibility, the rich and the poor live long, and the chaos is extremely dangerous, and you can't lose money." If you do it for your superiors, you don't listen to the rules. If you show it to the inferior, you will not do it. This is enough to lose the world. "

As mentioned above, although Confucianism is seeking Tao, it has no way and has to do whatever it wants. They have established a set of ideological system and behavioral standards to do whatever they want, and the inevitable cognition of life is to impose something in the law of inaction on the standard of doing whatever they want, and in the end they can only lose both sides because of the inconsistency between behavior and purpose. Although Mohism also stresses Heaven, it doesn't know much about inaction itself, and it is basically law-abiding, so it is normal to despise Confucianism. Therefore, we say that the Mohist system is more solid and reliable than the Confucian system to a great extent. A Mohist who has a deep understanding of his own system may have a higher degree of acceptance when he turns to study Taoism, and he can connect with reality more practically. I even think that there are quite a few Mohist elements in the later Zen thought, which makes ordinary workers closer to the road than before.

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10。 The central concept of Confucianism is benevolence and righteousness, and Mozi did not criticize it; In the book Mozi, he often talks about benevolence and righteousness. However, what he refers to with these nouns is still somewhat different from Confucianism. Mozi believes that benevolence and righteousness refer to universal love, and a benevolent person is a person who practices this universal love. Universal love is the central concept of Mozi's philosophy. Mozi is a ranger, and universal love is a logical extension of ranger's professional ethics. This kind of morality is "sharing weal and woe" in their group (this is what later chivalrous people often say). Based on the concept of this group, Mozi tried his best to expand it by preaching the theory of universal love, that is, everyone in the world should love others equally and indiscriminately. There are three articles in Mozi devoted to universal love. Mozi first distinguished what he called "concurrently" and "not". He is known as the "all-loving scholar" who insists on all-embracing love and the "different-loving scholar" who insists on loving people with differences. "Other scholars said: Can you be my friend? If you are my body, if you are my friend's relative, if you are my relative, "he did little for his friend." Part-time scholars are not. He "must be his friend, if he is himself, if he is his friend's relative, if he is his relative". He does everything he can for his friends. Having made such a difference, Mozi asked again, which one is right? (For the quotation, see Mozi's Universal Love. )

-On philosophers, Shi Jiao said that Mozi is more valuable than Confucius and "truth is one" (see "corpse luster"). It is more accurate to use the word "harmony", which can roughly express the general ideas of Confucianism and Mohism, but in fact, although there are considerable similarities, they have not reached the truth. It can be understood from the dynamic observation of the cognitive process of both sides that both sides are arguing.

For example, in the discussion about love, Confucius said that love comes from benevolence, that is to say, love is only a manifestation of benevolence; Mozi's exposition of love is triggered by mutual benefit. Confucianism believes that benevolence and righteousness are human nature, such as "benevolent, human also" (the golden mean) or "benevolent, human also" (Mencius, wholeheartedly). These are all explained from the starting point of kissing, which is an easily observed phenomenon and has not been fundamentally popularized as human nature. Mohism is not like this. They are based on people's mutual benefit. Why mutual benefit can be the basis lies in that people as a group are more competitive than individuals, so that it is difficult to clearly identify what kind of emotion is the basic emotion of people in Mohism, so that the so-called kiss proposition of Confucianism can easily be understood as taking advantage of relatives, and it is more profound and convincing. For example, sons love education more than life, which is well understood here, but for Confucianism, other theories are needed to explain it. So we can even say that Mohism sees the problem more profoundly. As far as Mohism is concerned, love is only the expression of interests in people, while for Confucianism, love is an innate attribute of people. For example, Li Yun said, "What is human feelings? Joy, anger, sorrow, fear, love, evil and desire. " This deviation from Confucian love for the people seems to be only the weakness of this emotion and the growth of the corresponding evil emotion. But the degree of love for Mohism is only the increase or decrease of interest. For Confucianism, because there are more phenomena as theoretical basis, it is relatively easy to establish a huge system, because its foundation is easier to be observed and accepted by the public, so it is easier to spread. For Mohism, it is difficult to be accepted by the public because the foundation is relatively simple, and it is a heavenly way or an abstract object. In addition, its emphasis on reality and contempt for fame and fortune can't satisfy the desire of people who have deviated from simplicity, and the pursuit of power and material desire of rulers who lose simplicity will inevitably spread slightly in the future.