The first chapter close to the cell

1. Cell is the basic unit of organism structure and function; Cells are the basic units of all animal and plant structures. Viruses have no cell structure. 2. The main difference between eukaryotic cells and prokaryotic cells is whether there is a nucleus bounded by nuclear membrane. 3. The main content of cell theory: a cell is an organism, and all animals and plants are developed from cells and composed of cells and their products; Cell is a relatively independent unit, which not only has its own life, but also plays a role in the whole life composed of other cells. Mother cells divide to produce new cells. 4. The structural level of life system: cell → tissue → organ → system → individual → population → community → ecosystem → biosphere.

Chapter II Molecules Constituting Cells

5. Chemical elements in cells can be divided into macro elements and trace elements. Chemical elements that make up organisms can be found in inorganic nature, and none of them is unique to the biological world, which shows that the biological world and the abiotic world are unified. 6. Compared with abiotic cells, the relative contents of various elements are quite different, indicating that there are differences between the living and abiotic worlds. 7. protein is the most abundant organic substance in cells. Protein is a biomacromolecule with amino acid as the basic unit. Each amino acid molecule contains at least one amino group (-NH2) and one carboxyl group (-COOH), and both amino groups and carboxyl groups are connected to the same carbon atom. A chemical bond (-NH-CO-) connecting two amino acid molecules is called a peptide bond. 8. All life activities are inseparable from protein, and protein is the main undertaker of life activities. The functions of protein are: structural protein, catalysis (enzyme), transport (carrier), information transmission (hormone), immunity (antibody) and so on. 9. Nucleic acid is a long string of nucleotides (consisting of one molecule of nitrogenous bases, one molecule of pentose and one molecule of phosphoric acid), which is the genetic material of all living things. It is a substance that carries genetic information in cells and plays an extremely important role in the genetic variation of organisms and the biosynthesis of protein. Nucleic acid is divided into DNA and RNA. DNA consists of two deoxynucleotide chains with bases A, T, G and C, while RNA consists of one nucleotide chain with bases A, U, G and C, 10. Sugar is the main energy substance of cells, which is divided into monosaccharide, disaccharide and polysaccharide. The basic unit of polysaccharide is glucose. The energy storage substance in plants is starch, and the energy storage substance in humans and animals is glycogen (liver glycogen and muscle glycogen) 1 1. Lipids are divided into fats, phospholipids and sterols. Fat is a good energy storage substance in cells; Phospholipids are an important part of biofilm; Cholesterol is an important component of animal cell membrane and also participates in the transportation of human blood lipids. 12. Biological macromolecules take carbon chains as the skeleton and are connected by many monomers to form polymers. C is the basic element of cells. 13. Generally speaking, water is the most abundant chemical component in cells. Water exists in cells in two forms: free water and bound water, most of which are free water. Bound water is an important part of cell structure, and free water is a good solvent in cells. 14. Most inorganic salts in cells exist in ionic form. Inorganic salts play an important role in maintaining the life activities of cells and organisms.

Chapter III Basic Structure of Cells

15. Cell membrane is mainly composed of lipids and protein. The phospholipid bilayer is the basic skeleton. The more complex the cell membrane, the more kinds and quantities of protein. Cell membrane has certain structural characteristics of fluidity and functional characteristics of selective permeation. The function of cell membrane is to isolate cells from the external environment; Control substances inside and outside the cell (control is relative); Exchange information between cells. 16. Cell walls can support and protect plant cells. The main components of plant cell wall are cellulose and pectin. 17. Mitochondria are the main places for aerobic respiration of living cells. Janus greenstein is a living cell dye, which specially dyes mitochondria. 18. Chloroplast is the place where green plants carry out photosynthesis. 19. Ribosomes are places where amino acids synthesize protein in cells. 20. The endoplasmic reticulum is a workshop for intracellular protein and lipid synthesis. 2 1. Golgi apparatus is related to the secretion of animal cells and the formation of plant cell walls. 22. The lysosome is the digestion workshop. The method of separating various organelles is differential centrifugation. 23. Centrosomes are related to the mitosis of animals and some lower plant cells. 24. Cell membrane, organelle membrane and nuclear membrane together constitute the biofilm system of cells. It plays a decisive role in the process of material transportation, energy conversion and information transmission between cells and the external environment. 25. The nucleus is the genetic information base and the control center of cell metabolism and heredity. 26. Models include physical models, conceptual models and mathematical models.

Chapter IV Material Input and Output of Cells

27. Cell membrane, vacuole membrane and cytoplasm between the two membranes are called protoplasm. Protoplast layer is equivalent to a semi-permeable membrane. 28. Cell membranes and other biofilms are selectively permeable membranes. The fluid mosaic model of cell membrane holds that phospholipid molecules and most protein molecules can move. 29. Free diffusion, auxiliary diffusion and active transport are the transmembrane transport modes of substances. The transport of macromolecules is endocytosis and exocytosis. Among them, carriers are needed to assist diffusion and active transportation, and energy is consumed by active transportation, endocytosis and exocytosis.

Chapter V Energy Supply and Utilization of Batteries

30. The factors that can change during the experiment are called variables. The artificially changed variables are called independent variables; Variables that change with independent variables are called dependent variables; Variables other than independent variables that can affect the experimental results are called irrelevant variables. 3 1. An experiment in which all factors remain unchanged except one is called a control experiment. Generally, the control group and the experimental group are set up. 32. Many chemical reactions that occur all the time in cells are collectively called cell metabolism. 33. The energy required for a molecule to change from a normal state to an active state prone to chemical reactions is called activation energy. Compared with inorganic catalysts, enzymes play a more significant role in reducing activation energy, so the catalytic efficiency is higher. 34. Enzymes are catalytic organic substances produced by living cells, most of which are protein and a few are RNA. The catalysis of enzyme has high efficiency and specificity. The catalysis of enzyme needs suitable temperature and pH value. Abbreviation of ATP molecule: the energy supply mechanism of ATP and ADP transformation in a-p ~ p ~ p cells is biologically * * *. Most life activities that need energy in cells are directly supplied by ATP. 36. The three stages of aerobic respiration are carried out on the cytoplasmic matrix, mitochondrial matrix and mitochondrial inner membrane. The second stage produces CO2 and the third stage produces water. Anaerobic respiration occurs in the cytoplasmic matrix. Anaerobic respiration of microorganisms such as yeast and lactic acid bacteria is also called fermentation. Bromthymol blue is used to identify CO2 (blue turns green to yellow) and potassium dichromate is used to identify alcohol (orange turns gray-green). 37. Chlorophyll A and Chlorophyll B mainly absorb blue-violet light and red light, while carotene and lutein mainly absorb blue-violet light. These pigments are distributed on thylakoid membranes. 38. The photoreaction stage is carried out on thylakoid membrane, and the products are [H] and ATP. The dark reaction stage is carried out in the chloroplast matrix with or without light. All oxygen released by photosynthesis comes from water. 39. The environmental factors that affect the intensity of photosynthesis are carbon dioxide concentration, water content, light intensity, light composition and temperature.

Chapter VI Life Course of Cells

40. The relationship between cell surface area and volume limits cell growth. 4 1. Organisms with sexual reproduction in nature start from fertilized eggs and gradually develop into adults through cell proliferation and differentiation. Cell proliferation is the basis of organism growth, development, reproduction and inheritance. 42. Eukaryotic cells divide in three ways: mitosis, amitosis and meiosis. 43. The continuous division of cells, from the completion of one division to the completion of the next division, is a cell cycle. The cell cycle includes two stages: interphase and mitosis. Most of the cell cycle is in interphase. Intermittent phase is the preparation of active substances in mitotic phase, which completes the replication of DNA molecules and the synthesis of protein, while cells grow moderately. 44. The division period is divided into four periods: prophase, metaphase, anaphase and anaphase. The process of making mitotic slices of onion root tip is: dissociation → rinsing → dyeing → production. 45. The significance of cell mitosis is that the chromosomes of the mother cell are accurately and evenly distributed to the two daughter cells after replication, thus maintaining the stability of genetic traits between the biological parents and offspring, which is of great significance to the inheritance of organisms. 46. amitosis: spindle filaments and chromosomes do not change during division. 47. Cell differentiation is the result of gene selective expression, which is the basis of individual development and is conducive to improving the efficiency of various physiological functions. 48. The totipotency of cells means that differentiated cells still have the potential to develop into complete individuals. Highly differentiated plant cells still maintain cell totipotency. The nucleus of differentiated animal somatic cells is omnipotent. 49. Apoptosis is a process in which cells automatically end their life determined by genes, also known as programmed cell death. 50. Cancer cells are characterized by infinite proliferation, remarkable changes in morphology and structure, and changes in surface. 5 1. Carcinogenic factors can be roughly divided into three categories: physical carcinogens, chemical carcinogens and viral carcinogens. The reason is that proto-oncogene and tumor suppressor gene mutate. Canceration is the cumulative effect of multiple genes.

Compulsory 2 key sentences of heredity and evolution

Chapter 1 Discovery of Genetic Factors

1. Relative traits: different expression types of the same trait of the same organism. Genes that control relative traits are called alleles. 2. Character separation: In the hybrid offspring, dominant and recessive characters appear at the same time. 3. Hypothesis-deduction method: observe phenomena, ask questions → analyze problems, propose assumptions → design experiments, verify assumptions → analyze results, and draw conclusions. Test crossing: F 1 crosses with recessive homozygote. 4. The essence of segregation is that in the later stage of meiosis, with the separation of homologous chromosomes, alleles separate into two different gametes. 5. The essence of the law of free combination is that alleles on homologous chromosomes are separated in the late stage of the first meiosis, and non-alleles on non-homologous chromosomes are free to combine. 6. Phenotype refers to the traits displayed by biological individuals, and the gene composition related to phenotype is called genotype.

Chapter II Relationship between Genes and Chromosomes

7. Meiosis is a kind of cell division. When sexual reproductive organisms produce mature germ cells, the number of chromosomes is halved. During meiosis, chromosomes are copied only once, while cells divide twice. Due to meiosis, the chromosome number of mature germ cells is reduced by half compared with that of spermatogonia. 8. During meiosis, the number of chromosomes is halved in the first meiosis. 9. An oocyte undergoes meiosis to form only one oocyte (one genotype). A spermatogonia undergoes meiosis to form four sperm (two genotypes). 10. For sexually reproducing organisms, meiosis and fertilization are very important to maintain the chromosome number of the first and second generation somatic cells of each organism, as well as the inheritance and variation of organisms. 1 1. Homologous chromosomes: Two pairs of chromosomes are generally the same in shape and size, one from the father and the other from the mother. The pairing of homologous chromosomes is called synapse. After the combination, each pair of homologous chromosomes contains four chromatids, which are called tetrads, and the non-sister chromatids in tetrads are often cross-exchanged. 12. There is usually no gap between the first meiosis and the second meiosis, and chromosomes are no longer replicated. 13. Male red-green color blindness genes can only be inherited from the mother, and can only be passed on to the daughter in the future. This is called cross inheritance. 14. The types of sex determination are XY type (male: XY, female: XX) and ZW type (male: ZZ, female: ZW).

Chapter III Nature of Genes

15. Avery proved that DNA is genetic material through in vitro transformation experiments. 16. Because the genetic material of most organisms is DNA, DNA is the main genetic material. 17. The genetic material of any organism with cell structure is DNA, and the genetic material of virus is DNA or RNA. 18. The main functional feature of DNA double helix structure is that (1)DNA molecules are composed of two strands, which spiral into a double helix structure in an anti-parallel manner. (2) deoxyribose and (2) phosphoric acid in 2)DNA molecules are alternately connected and arranged outside to form a basic skeleton; Inside the base. (3) The bases on the two chains are connected into base pairs by hydrogen bonds, and there are certain rules for base pairing: A must be paired with T; G must be paired with C. This one-to-one correspondence between bases is called the principle of base complementary pairing. 19. The replication of DNA molecules is a process of melting and replication, which requires templates, raw materials, energy and enzymes (helicase, DNA polymerase). The unique double helix structure of DNA molecules provides an accurate template for replication; Through base complementary pairing, replication can be accurately guaranteed. 20. The diversity and specificity of DNA molecules are the material basis of biodiversity. There are many genes distributed on DNA molecules, which are DNA fragments with genetic effects. Genes are linearly arranged on chromosomes, which are the main carriers of genes (there are also genes in chloroplasts and mitochondria). 2 1. The transmission of genetic information is completed through the replication of DNA molecules, from parent DNA to offspring DNA, from parent individual to offspring individual. 22. Because the deoxynucleotide sequences of different genes are different (base sequencing), different genes contain different genetic information (that is, the deoxynucleotide sequences of genes represent genetic information).

Chapter IV Gene Expression

23. Gene expression is achieved by DNA controlling the synthesis of protein, including transcription (in the nucleus, a DNA strand is used as a template for synthesis. ) and translation (the process of synthesizing protein with a certain amino acid sequence by using mRNA as a template in cytoplasm). 24. Genetic code refers to the sequencing of bases on mRNA. 25. Codon refers to three adjacent bases on mRNA that determine amino acids. There are 64 codons, of which 6 1 determines amino acids and 3 are stop codons. 26. There are two ways for genes to control traits: first, genes control the metabolic process by controlling the synthesis of enzymes, and then control the traits of organisms; Second, genes can directly control the traits of organisms by controlling the structure of protein. 27. The relationship between genotype and phenotype of individual organisms is that genotype is the internal factor of trait performance, while phenotype is the expression form of genotype. In the process of individual development, phenotype is not only controlled by genotype, but also influenced by environmental conditions. Phenotype is the result of interaction between genotype and environment.

Chapter V Gene Mutations and Other Variations

28. Gene mutation: the change of gene structure caused by the substitution, addition and deletion of base pairs in DNA molecules. Gene mutation is common in biology; Gene mutation is random, low frequency, non-directional and less harmful. 29. Gene mutation is a way to produce new genes; It is the fundamental source of biological variation and the original material of biological evolution. It is the theoretical basis of mutation breeding. 30. Gene recombination refers to the recombination of genes that control different traits during biological sexual reproduction. Including free combination, cross exchange of non-sister chromatids and genetic engineering when homologous chromosomes are combined. This is the theoretical basis of cross breeding. 3 1. Chromosome variation includes the variation of chromosome structure (deletion, addition, grafting and inversion) and the variation of chromosome number (one is the increase or decrease of individual chromosomes in the cell, and the other is the increase or decrease of chromosome number in the form of genome). 32. Genome: A group of non-homologous chromosomes in cells, with different morphology and functions, carrying all genetic information that controls the growth and development of organisms. 33. Diploid: an individual developed from a fertilized egg, and the somatic cell contains two chromosomes. 34. Polyploid: An individual developed from a fertilized egg, whose somatic cells contain three or more chromosomes. Polyploid plants are characterized by stout stems, large leaves, large fruits and seeds, and increased contents of nutrients such as sugar and protein. 35. Methods of artificially inducing polyploidy include low temperature treatment of germinated seeds or seedlings and colchicine treatment. Colchicine acts on cells in the early stage and inhibits the formation of spindle. 36. Haploid: An individual developed from a gamete. It is characterized by weak plants and high sterility. Using haploid plants to cultivate new varieties can obviously shorten the breeding cycle. 37. Human genetic diseases are mainly divided into three categories: single-gene genetic diseases (controlled by more than one pair of alleles, often showing more weakness, often hiding white deaf-mute benzene, accompanied by X-color blindness and X-vitamin D rickets), polygenic genetic diseases (controlled by more than two pairs of alleles) and chromosomal abnormal genetic diseases. 38. The aim of the Human Genome Project is to determine the complete base sequence of DNA in the human genome.

Chapter 6 from cross breeding to genetic engineering

39. "Scissors" of genes: restriction endonucleases; The "needle and thread" of gene: DNA ligase; Gene vectors: plasmids, phages, animal and plant viruses, etc. 40. Operating steps of genetic engineering: extracting the target gene → combining the target gene with a vector (constructing a gene expression vector) → introducing the target gene into a recipient cell → detecting and identifying the target gene.

Chapter VII Theory of Modern Biological Evolution

4 1. The theory of natural selection includes: over-reproduction, survival competition, genetic variation and survival of the fittest. Inheritance and variation are the internal factors of biological evolution, and survival competition promotes the evolution of organisms and is the driving force of biological evolution. Variation is not directional, but natural selection is directional, which determines the direction of biological evolution. 42. Population: All individuals of the same organism living in a certain area. Population is the basic unit of biological evolution. 43. All genes contained by all individuals in a population are called the gene pool of this population. In a population gene pool, the ratio of one gene to all alleles is called gene frequency. 44. Mutation (including gene mutation and chromosome variation) and gene recombination produce the raw materials of evolution. Gene mutation produces new alleles, which may change the gene frequency of the population. Under the action of natural selection, the gene frequency of the population will change directionally, leading to the continuous evolution of organisms in a certain direction. 45. Species: A group of organisms that can mate with each other in nature and produce fertile offspring. 46. Isolation is a necessary condition for speciation. Include geographical segregation and reproductive segregation. The symbol of new species formation: reproductive isolation. 47.*** Coevolution: Different species, organisms and inorganic environments are constantly evolving and developing under the influence of each other. 48. Biodiversity mainly includes genetic diversity, species diversity and ecosystem diversity.

Compulsory 3 "Steady State and Environment" Focus

Chapter I Internal Environment and Steady State of Human Body

1. Internal environment: a liquid environment composed of extracellular fluid (plasma, interstitial fluid and lymph). 2. Higher multicellular animals, their somatic cells can only exchange materials with the external environment through the internal environment. 3. The physical and chemical properties of extracellular fluid are mainly osmotic pressure, pH and temperature. Plasma osmotic pressure is mainly related to inorganic salts and protein content. 4. Steady-state: A normal organism can coordinate the activities of various organs and systems through regulation, thus maintaining a relatively stable internal environment. Internal environment stability is a necessary condition for normal life activities. 5. Neural-humoral-immunoregulatory network is the main regulatory mechanism to maintain the balance in the body.

Chapter II Regulation of Animal and Human Life Activities

6. The basic way of nerve regulation in (multicellular) animals is reflection, and the structural basis for completing the reflection is reflex arc. It consists of five parts: receptor, afferent nerve, nerve center, efferent nerve and effector. 7. Excitement: refers to the process that some tissues (such as nerve tissues) or cells in an animal or human body change from a relatively static state to a significantly active state after feeling external stimuli. 8. Resting potential: positive outside and negative inside; The potential of the excited part: external negative and internal positive. 9. The transmission of nerve impulses on nerve fibers is bidirectional. 10. Because neurotransmitters only exist in the vesicles of presynaptic membrane, they can only be released from presynaptic membrane and then act on postsynaptic membrane, so the transmission of excitement between neurons can only be unidirectional. 1 1. The advanced center that regulates the physiological activities of human beings and higher animals is the cerebral cortex. 12. Hormone regulation: regulated by chemicals secreted by endocrine organs (or cells). 13. In a system, the working effect of the system itself, in turn, serves as information for regulating the work of the system, which is called feedback regulation. It is divided into positive feedback adjustment and negative feedback adjustment. 14. Characteristics of hormone regulation: trace and high efficiency; Transport by body fluids; Acting on target organs and cells. Related hormones have synergistic or antagonistic effects. 15. Body fluid regulation: hormones and other chemicals (besides hormones, there are other regulatory factors, such as CO2, etc. ) regulate life activities through body fluid transmission. Hormone regulation is the main content of body fluid regulation. 16. Single-celled animals and some multicellular animals only have humoral regulation. 17. Animals' life activities are often regulated by nerves and body fluids at the same time, but nerve regulation is still dominant. 18. Composition of immune system: immune organs, immune cells (phagocytes and lymphocytes) and immunocompetent substances (antibodies, lymphatic factor, lysozyme, etc.). ). 19. Functions of the immune system: defense, monitoring and elimination.

Chapter III Hormone Regulation in Plants

20. phototropism experiment found that the part that feels light stimulation is at the top of coleoptile, while the part that bends to light is at a section below the top. Smooth auxin grows slowly, while backlight auxin grows fast. 2 1. Plant hormones: Trace organic substances produced in plants can be transported from the production site to the action site, which has a significant impact on the growth and development of plants. 22. Polar transport: auxin can only be transported from the upper end of the form to the lower end of the form, and vice versa. 23. The role of auxin is twofold: it can not only promote growth, but also inhibit growth; It can not only promote germination, but also inhibit germination; It can not only prevent falling flowers and fruits, but also prevent thinning flowers and fruits. Generally speaking, low concentration promotes growth and high concentration inhibits growth. 24. The process of plant growth and development is fundamentally the result of programmed expression of genes in a certain time and space. 25. A certain concentration of auxin solution is coated on the stigma of pistil, and seedless fruit can be obtained without pollination.

Chapter IV Population and Community

26. Population density: the number of individuals in a group per unit space. Population density is the most basic quantitative characteristic of population. 27. Demographic characteristics include population density, birth rate and death rate, immigration and emigration rates, age composition and sex ratio. 28. Investigation methods of population density: sampling method, marking recapture method, sampling detection method and sampler sampling method for collection and investigation. 29.k value: the maximum population that can be maintained in a certain space without destroying environmental conditions. 30. The mathematical model of "J" growth: Nt=N0λt T. Where N0 is the initial population, t is the time, Nt is the population after t years, and λ is the multiple of the population a year ago. 3 1. community: the collection of various biological populations gathered in a certain area at the same time. 32. Abundance: The number of species in a community. 33. Interspecific relationships include competition, predation, reciprocity and parasitism. 34. The spatial structure of community includes vertical structure and horizontal structure. 35. Succession: The process in which one community is replaced by another over time. It can be divided into primary succession and secondary succession.

Chapter V Ecosystem and Its Stability

36. A unified whole formed by the interaction between biological community and its inorganic environment. The largest ecosystem on the earth is the biosphere, which includes all living things on the earth and their inorganic environment. 37. The structure of an ecosystem includes its components (abiotic matter and energy, producers, consumers and decomposers) and its nutritional structure (food chain and food web). 38. The more complex the food web, the stronger the ability of the ecosystem to resist external interference. The material circulation and energy flow of ecosystem are carried out along food chain and food web. 39. Energy flow in ecosystem: the process of energy input, transmission, transformation and dissipation in ecosystem. It is characterized by one-way flow and gradual decline. 40. The energy transfer efficiency between two adjacent trophic levels is about 10% ~ 20%. The more trophic levels, the more energy is consumed in the process of energy flow. The more organisms located at the top of the energy pyramid, the less energy they get, and the more harmful components they have in their bodies through biological enrichment. 4 1. The total solar energy fixed by producers is the total energy flowing through this ecosystem. 42. Studying the energy flow of ecosystems can help people to plan and design artificial ecosystems scientifically and make the most effective use of energy. It can also help people to rationally adjust the energy flow relationship in the ecosystem, so that energy can flow to the most beneficial part of human beings continuously and efficiently. 43. The material cycle of the ecosystem is global and reusable. 44. Functions of ecosystem: energy flow, material circulation and information transmission. 45. Information types: physical information, chemical information and behavioral information. 46. The normal conduct of life activities is inseparable from the role of information; The reproduction of biological population is also inseparable from the transmission of information. Information can also regulate the relationship between organisms and maintain the stability of the ecosystem. 47. Negative feedback regulation is ubiquitous in the ecosystem, which is the basis of the self-regulation ability of the ecosystem. 48. Resistance stability: the ability of an ecosystem to resist external interference and maintain its structural and functional integrity. 49. resilience stability: The ability of an ecosystem to recover to its original state after being destroyed by external disturbance factors. 50. If the resistance is stable, the rebound stability is small, and vice versa. Generally speaking, the more components in the ecosystem, the more complex the food web, the stronger its self-regulation ability and the higher its resistance stability.

Chapter VI Protection of Ecological Environment

5 1. Global eco-environmental problems mainly include global climate change, water shortage, ozone layer destruction, acid rain, land desertification, marine pollution and sharp decline in biodiversity. 52. Biodiversity includes genetic diversity, species diversity and ecosystem diversity. 53. The value of biodiversity: potential value, indirect value (ecological function) and direct value.