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Chapter 1 Introduction to Psychology 1, Psychology: It is a science that studies psychological phenomena, mainly studying individual psychology, including cognition, emotion and motivation, ability and personality. I also study group and social psychology.

2. What is the research object of psychology? What aspects do people's psychological phenomena include?

1, psychology is a science that mainly studies psychological imagination, which studies both animal psychology and human psychology, with human psychological phenomena as the main research object. We should learn both individual psychology and group and social psychology.

2. Three important aspects of individual psychological phenomenon: cognition, emotion and motivation, ability and personality.

3. What is the relationship between psychology and behavior, consciousness and unconsciousness?

1, psychology and behavior: behavior is the response system of organisms. It consists of a series of reaction actions and activities. Behavior is different from psychology, but it is closely related to psychology. Behavior is always produced under certain stimulus, and the stimulus that causes behavior often works through psychological intermediary. Without understanding people's internal psychological process, it is difficult to understand external behavior; Psychology dominates behavior, which is manifested through behavior. A basic law of psychological research is to infer the internal psychological process through external behavior. In this sense, psychology is sometimes called the science of studying behavior.

2. Consciousness and unconsciousness: human consciousness is a rich and stable inner world composed of human cognition, emotion, emotion and desire, and it is an internal resource for people to actively understand and transform the world. People can not only recognize objective things, but also have self-awareness. Lower animals have no self-awareness, and infants' self-awareness has not developed. Self-awareness has the ability to analyze and evaluate self. In addition to consciousness, there are unconscious phenomena in human psychology. Unconsciousness is a psychological phenomenon that people can't perceive and consciously adjust and control under normal circumstances. For example, people's psychological phenomena in dreams are mainly unconscious. People usually work, study and live under the control of consciousness. Only patients with mental disorders and brain injuries will lose conscious control of their behavior and be completely dominated by unconscious desires.

4. What problems should psychology study?

People's psychological phenomenon is very complicated, which can be studied from different aspects and angles. But to sum up, the main research questions are: 1, psychological process; 2. Psychological structure; 3. The brain mechanism of psychology; 4. The occurrence and development of psychological phenomena; 5. Psychology and environment.

5. What is the research type of psychology?

The research types of psychology are: causal research, related research and case study.

6. What is the significance of learning psychology?

Predict phenomena scientifically, control phenomena effectively, and improve people's quality of life from different aspects. As a science, psychology is also of great significance in theory and practice:

1, theoretical significance: It is of great significance for us to get rid of superstition and form a scientific world outlook and outlook on life by scientifically and correctly explaining psychological phenomena.

2. Practical significance: Through the scientific understanding of psychological phenomena, we can guide the development of people's mental health in practice, and we can use psychological laws to predict and control psychological phenomena and guide practice in different fields.

7. What are the main branches of psychology?

General psychology; Physiological psychology and psychophysiology; Developmental psychology; Educational psychology; Medical psychology; Engineering psychology; Social psychology.

1, general psychology: ○ 1 studies the most general laws of the emergence and development of psychological phenomena and the most general laws of various psychological characteristics; ○2 The most general theory of learning psychology; ○3 The most general method of learning psychology.

2. Physiological psychology and psychophysiology: Physiological psychology studies the physiological mechanism of psychological phenomena; Psychophysiology studies the changes of physiological functions caused by psychological activities.

3, developmental psychology: the study of psychological species development' comparative psychology' and the study of human individual development' lifelong development psychology'

4. Educational Psychology: Studying various psychological phenomena involved in the process of education and revealing the relationship between education and psychological development.

5. Medical Psychology: Studying the role of psychological factors in the occurrence, diagnosis, treatment and prevention of diseases is the product of the combination of psychology and medicine.

6. Engineering Psychology: It is the product of the combination of psychology and modern technical science. It studies the configuration and function coordination between man and machine, realizes the best matching of man, machine and environment system, and makes people work under safe and effective conditions.

7. Social Psychology: It is a science that systematically studies social psychology and social behavior.

8. Why is psychology an intermediate subject?

1, subject classification is usually divided into natural science and social science. Psychology should study the material noumenon of psychological phenomena and the neurobiological basis of psychology. In this sense, the research objectives and means of psychology are the same as those of natural science, so it has the nature of natural science.

2. People are social entities, and the occurrence of people's psychology cannot be separated from the influence of social environment. In addition, psychology also studies group psychology and social psychology, which are the products of social life. In this sense, psychological research has the nature of social science.

In a word, psychology has the nature of both natural science and social science. So psychology is in the middle position, so it is called intermediate science or marginal science.

9. What are the research methods of psychology? What are the characteristics of these methods?

(1) observation method. Under natural conditions, we should systematically observe the external activities expressing psychological phenomena and find out the regularity of the emergence and development of psychological phenomena. Observation method is generally used in the following situations:

1, unable to control the studied object;

2. Under controlled conditions, it may affect the appearance of some behaviors;

3. Due to the requirements of social morality, it is impossible to control a certain phenomenon.

The success of observation depends on the purpose and task of observation, the means of observation and recording, and the perseverance and attitude of the observer.

Defects in observation methods:

1, under natural conditions, it is difficult to repeat events in exactly the same way.

2. Under natural conditions, there are many factors that affect a certain psychological activity, and it is difficult to accurately analyze the results.

3, because the conditions are not controlled, unnecessary research objects may appear during observation, but the objects to be studied do not appear.

4. The observation result is easily influenced by the observer himself.

(2) Psychological test method. It refers to the method of measuring a certain psychological quality with a set of standardized questions (scales) in advance. Psychological measurement should pay attention to two basic requirements: reliability and validity of the test.

1, reliability refers to the reliability of the test.

2. Validity refers to the psychological quality that the test needs to measure effectively.

In order to ensure the reliability and validity of psychological tests, on the one hand, it is necessary to conduct in-depth research on certain psychological qualities. The deeper we know about intelligence or personality, the better the corresponding scale will be. On the other hand, the preparation of psychological scale should pay attention to rigor and scientificity.

(3) Experimental methods. Methods of observing psychological phenomena under controlled conditions. There are laboratory experiments and natural experiments.

Laboratory experiments are carried out under strictly controlled experimental conditions with the help of special experimental equipment. This helps to discover the causal relationship of events and can be verified repeatedly; But the disadvantage is that the examiner strictly controls the experimental conditions, which makes the experimental scene extremely artificial.

Natural experiments, also known as field experiments, can be carried out in normal learning and working environments by properly controlling experimental conditions. It eliminates the shortcomings of laboratory experiments, but it is difficult to get accurate experimental results because of the lax control of conditions.

The experimental method contains a series of changing factors, which are called variables. Some of these variables are experimental conditions controlled by experimenters, which are called independent variables and independent variables. There are also behavioral and psychological activities measured by experimenters called dependent variables.

(4) case law. It requires in-depth and meticulous observation and research on a person, in order to find out the reasons that affect some behavioral and psychological phenomena.

10, historical background events of modern psychology:

1, the first book on various psychological phenomena in history is Aristotle's Theory of the Soul.

2, rationalism-the famous representative is the French philosopher Jean? Descartes.

3. Empiricism originated from British philosophers Hobbes (the pioneer of empiricism) and Locke (the founder).

4. British empiricism forms associations, and the representative figure is James? John Mill? Paine Mueller.

5. Modern philosophy provides a theoretical basis for the birth of modern western psychology, and experimental physiology is the direct source of experimental methods of modern psychology.

In June, 1879, Feng Te, a famous German psychologist, set up the first psychology laboratory in Leipzig University, Germany, and began to conduct systematic laboratory research on psychological phenomena. In the history of psychology, people regard this as a sign that psychology has left the embrace of philosophy and embarked on the road of independent development.

What are the main schools of modern psychology?

The main schools of modern psychology are:

"Constructivism"-the founder is German Feng Te. The famous representative is Tieqinna. It is argued that psychology should study people's direct experience, namely consciousness. Experience is divided into three elements: feeling, intention and passion. Emphasize the elements of consciousness. The research method emphasizes introspection.

Functionalism ―― James, the founder of America. The representatives are Dewey and Angel. They advocate the study of consciousness and think that consciousness is a continuous process. Emphasize the role and function of consciousness. Promote the development of real life.

Behaviorism ―― Watson, an American psychologist, published Psychology from the Perspective of Behaviorism. Behaviorism features: 1, opposing research consciousness and advocating psychological research behavior; 2. Oppose introspection and advocate experiment.

The founders of Gestalt Psychology are wertheimer, Kohler and Kaufka. Oppose to analyze consciousness as an element, and emphasize that psychology is a whole. The meaning of an organization. It is believed that the whole cannot be reduced to the sum of its parts and elements. The sum of parts is not equal to the whole. The whole exists before the part, which restricts the nature and significance of the part. They attach importance to psychological experiments, and the research on perception, learning and thinking is very important.

Gestalt means "whole" in German.

Psychoanalysis School ―― the school founded by Freud, a psychiatrist in Vienna, Austria. Attach importance to the analysis of abnormal behavior of adults. And stressed that psychology should study unconscious phenomena. Attach importance to the study of motivation and unconsciousness.

12, the main research direction of modern psychology?

1, physiological psychology research

2. Behaviorism research

3. Psychoanalytic research

4. The study of cognitive psychology-Piaget, a Swiss psychologist; American psychologist Nesser published the book Cognitive Psychology.

5. Research on humanistic psychology.

13, the development of psychology in China?

1, the establishment of modern psychology in China began at 19 17, which marked the establishment of the first psychology laboratory in Peking University.

2, 1920, Nanjing Normal University (Southeast University) established the first psychology department in China.

3, 192 1 year, the Chinese Psychological Society was established in Nanjing.

4, 1980, Chinese Psychological Association was officially accepted to join the World Psychological Federation. Appendix: Explanation of Nouns

1, psychology-is a science that studies psychological phenomena, mainly studying individual psychology, including cognition, emotion and motivation, ability and personality. I also study group and social psychology.

2. Cognition refers to the process that people acquire or apply knowledge, or the process of information processing. This is the most basic psychological process. It includes feeling, perception, memory, imagination, thinking and language.

3. Unconsciousness-a psychological phenomenon that people can't perceive and consciously adjust and control under normal circumstances.

4. Double-blind control-in the experiment, neither the subjects nor the subjects know how the independent variables are controlled. This experiment is called double-blind control.

Chapter II Neurophysiological Mechanism of Psychology 1, Evolution of Brain:

1, occurrence of nervous system: unicellular animals-protozoa (amoeba)-have no special nervous system, sensory organs and effector organs. Multicellular animals-coelenterates (hydra, jellyfish, jellyfish)-have special cells that are specially stimulated to form special sensory organs and motor organs, and at the same time, there is a nervous system that coordinates the body and forms a reticular nervous system. Hydra has the embryonic form of reflex arc of higher animals and the initial form of nervous system.

2. The nervous system of invertebrates. Earthworms-have ganglia and developed ganglia in the head, which is called germinal phenomenon. The appearance of hair growth prepares the conditions for the appearance of the brain. The nervous system of earthworms is chain-shaped, which is called chain-shaped nervous system. Insects-form three big ganglia: head, chest and abdomen. Their nervous system is called the ganglion nervous system.

3. The nervous system of lower vertebrates. Vertebrates have a spine on the back of their bodies, which is called the spine. Vertebrates are tubular nervous systems, and their nervous tissues are hollow. Brain vesicles (forebrain, diencephalon, midbrain, medulla oblongata and cerebellum) are formed in the enlarged part of the front end of the tubular nervous system. Reptiles have cerebral cortex.

4. The nervous system of higher vertebrates. Mammals-(rodents, carnivores, primates) The nervous system of mammals is more perfect, sulcus gyrus begins to appear in the cerebral hemisphere, and the functions of various parts of the brain are becoming more and more differentiated. The cerebral cortex is the highest part of the whole nervous system.

2. The evolution of the brain from lower vertebrates to higher vertebrates:

1, the change of relative size of brain-brain index

2. Changes in the relative size of cortex-cortex index.

3. Changes in the internal structure of functional areas of cerebral cortex.

3. Neurons and glial cells

1, neuron-189 1 year, proposed by Valdeir. It is a kind of long and slender cell, which consists of cell body, dendrites and axons. Cell body: the outermost is the cell membrane, which contains nucleus and cytoplasm. There are neurofibrils, Nissl bodies, Golgi bodies and mitochondria in the cytoplasm. Neurofibrils and Nissl bodies are unique structures of neurons. Dendrites-short, responsible for receiving stimuli and transmitting nerve impulses to cell bodies. Axons are long and contain parallel neurofibrils. The function of axon is to transmit the nerve impulse of cell body to various cells connected with it.

Neurons are divided into unipolar cells, bipolar cells and multipolar cells according to the number of processes.

According to the function, it is divided into: internal conduction nerve (sensory nerve), external conduction nerve (motor nerve) and intermediate nerve.

2, glial cells-there are a lot of glial cells between neurons. Glial cells play an important role in communication between neurons. 1, which provides a line for the growth of neurons and repairs damaged cells; 2, an insulating layer is formed around the neurons, so that nerve impulses can be transmitted quickly; 3. Deliver nutrition to neurons and remove excessive neurotransmitters between neurons.

4. Transmission of nerve impulses

1, electrical conduction of nerve impulses-conduction of nerve impulses in the same cell.

2. Chemical transmission of nerve impulses-nerve impulses are transmitted between cells.

Neural circuit is the basic unit of brain information processing. The simplest neural circuit is reflex arc. Reflex arc consists of five parts: receptor, afferent nerve, central nervous system, efferent nerve and effector.

5. Nervous system

The nervous system is an extremely complex functional system composed of neurons. There are two parts: the central nervous system and the peripheral nervous system.

1, peripheral nervous system: spinal nerve, cranial nerve and autonomic nerve.

A, the spinal nerve originates from the spinal cord, passes through the intervertebral foramen, and consists of a mixture of nerve fibers of the anterior root and the posterior root of the spinal cord. The anterior root fibers of spinal cord belong to motor, while the posterior root fibers belong to sensory. The mixed spinal nerve is both motor nerve and sensory nerve.

B. Cranial nerves: olfactory nerve, optic nerve, oculomotor nerve, trochlear nerve, trigeminal nerve, abductor nerve, facial nerve, auditory nerve, glossopharyngeal nerve, vagus nerve, accessory nerve and hypoglossal nerve.

C. autonomic nerves: sympathetic and parasympathetic nerves. Sympathetic nerves enable the body to cope with emergencies; Parasympathetic nerves play a balancing role and inhibit excessive excitement of internal organs.

2. Central nervous system: spinal cord and brain

A, spinal cord function: 1, the spinal cord is the bridge between the brain and peripheral nerves; 2. The spinal cord can perform some simple reflex activities.

B, brain stem: including medulla oblongata, pons and midbrain.

The medulla oblongata is above the spinal cord, and the cerebellum covers the back. Function: It dominates activities such as breathing, excretion, swallowing and stomach, and is called "life center".

Pontine, located on the medulla oblongata, is the only way for central nerve and peripheral nerve to transmit information, and has the function of regulating people's sleep.

The midbrain is located at the base of thalamus, between cerebellum and pons.

C diencephalon: thalamus and hypothalamus

Thalamus-all input information from external sensory organs is guided to the cerebral cortex through thalamus, thus producing feelings of vision, hearing, touch and taste. It is of great significance for controlling sleep and awakening.

Hypothalamus regulating "autonomic nerve" is of great significance for maintaining internal balance and controlling the activity of endocrine glands.

D, cerebellum: there are cerebellar cortex and medulla. Function: It mainly helps the brain to maintain the balance and coordination of the body.

E limbic system: cingulate gyrus, hippocampus, hippocampus sulcus and nearby cerebral cortex. The limbic system is related to animal instinct and memory.

6. The structure and function of the brain.

1, the structure of the brain: trisection: central fissure, lateral fissure and parietal occipital fissure. Four leaves: frontal lobe, parietal lobe, occipital lobe and temporal lobe. The surface of the cerebral hemisphere is covered with a large number of nerve cells and unmyelinated nerve fibers, called gray matter, which is also the cerebral cortex. The inner surface of the cerebral hemisphere is composed of medulla of a large number of nerve fibers, which is called white matter. There is also a cross-linked corpus callosum.

2. Brain division and function: Bruderman's cortical division. It is divided into primary sensory area, primary motor area, speech area and joint area.

First, the primary sensory area: visual area, auditory area and body sensory area. Visual area-17 area, which produces the primary form of vision; Auditory zone-zone 4 1, 42, produces primary hearing. Body sensory area-area 1, 2, 3. Produce tactile sensation, temperature sensation, pain sensation, movement sensation and visceral sensation. The projection relationship between the trunk and limbs in the somatosensory area is left and right, upside down.

B, primary sports area: -4 area, called sports area. The function is to issue action instructions, dominate and adjust the position and posture of the body in space and the movement of various parts of the body.

C speech area: mainly located in the left hemisphere of the brain. One of the speech campaign areas is Bullokar District, which is the 44th and 45th districts of Bruderman. Injury in this area will lead to motor aphasia; Wilnick's area is a speech auditory pathway, and the injury will cause auditory aphasia.

D joint area: sensory joint area, motor joint area and forehead joint area.

The functions of the left and right hemispheres of the brain are different. Language functions are mainly located in the left hemisphere, mainly responsible for speech, reading, writing, mathematical operation and logical reasoning. The right hemisphere is mainly responsible for perceiving the spatial relationship, emotions, and enjoying music and art.

7. Theory of brain function

1, positioning means:

Hugard and Spitzer's "craniofacial theory" began.

The real localization theory begins with the clinical study of aphasia patients. 1825, Boylaud proposed that language is located in the frontal lobe of the brain and controlled by the left hemisphere.

Function is located in a certain area of the brain.

2. Generally speaking:

Florence's experiment found that animals can restore their functions through local destruction. Therefore, the holism of brain function is put forward. Lashley's brain injury experiment found that brain injury caused a great obstacle to the formation of habits, and this obstacle was closely related to the injured area. Put forward the principle of balance of power and universal activity. Every part of the cerebral cortex has almost equal influence on learning; The brain works as a whole.

3, functional system theory:

Ruglia thinks it is a dynamic structure and a complex dynamic functional system. When the individual links of the functional system are damaged, the advanced psychological function will indeed be affected. Divided into three closely related skill systems:

The first functional system is the dynamic system, which regulates activation and maintains the awakening state.

The second functional system is a system for receiving, processing and storing information.

The third functional system is called behavior regulation system, which is a system for programming, regulating and controlling behavior.

4. The module says:

Important theories in cognitive science and cognitive neuroscience. It is believed that the human brain is composed of highly specialized modules with relatively independent structure and function.

8. Classification and function of endocrine glands

1, gland-exocrine gland (ductal gland) such as sweat gland and stomach gland; And endocrine glands (ductless glands) such as endocrine substances and hormones.

The influence of endocrine glands on human behavior can be determined as: 1, physical development; 2. General metabolism; 3. Psychological development; 4. The development of secondary sexual characteristics; 5. Emotional behavior; 6. Chemical composition of organisms.

2. Classification and function of endocrine glands: Scientists have found that there are 27 kinds of endocrine glands.

1, thyroid gland-promotes the metabolism of the body.

2, parathyroid gland-it plays an important role in maintaining the concentration of calcium in blood and cells.

3, adrenal gland-maintain the normal content of calcium ions and water in the body.

4. Pituitary gland-secretes gonadotropin and controls many different endocrine glands, so it is called "main gland".

5, gonad-secretes sex hormones and promotes the development of secondary sexual characteristics. Appendix: Explanation of Nouns

1, neuron-nerve cell, is the structural and functional unit of the nervous system. It consists of cell bodies, dendrites and axons, and its basic function is to receive and transmit information.

2, nerve impulse-when any kind of stimulus acts on the nerve, the neuron will change from a relatively static state to a relatively active state, which is nerve impulse.

3. Resting potential-In resting state, the cell membrane has high permeability to K+ and poor permeability to Na+. The result is that K+ flows out through the ion channel, while Na+ is blocked outside the membrane, resulting in the potential difference inside and outside the membrane, and the membrane is slightly negative than the membrane, which is the resting potential.

4. Action potential-the potential changes when the nerve is stimulated. When the nerve is stimulated, the permeability of the cell membrane changes, the sodium ion channel is temporarily opened, and positively charged sodium ions are pumped into the cell membrane, so that the positive charge in the membrane rises rapidly and is higher than the extracellular potential. This change process is called action potential.

5. Neuro-humoral regulation-All endocrine gland activities are regulated and controlled by the nervous system. The nervous system affects the activities of the effector organs through the hormones of endocrine glands, which is neurohumoral regulation.

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