In recent years, teaching problems focus on the real classroom, paying attention to how teachers teach and how students learn. Classroom questioning is one of the most important parts in teaching and one of the most commonly used forms of classroom interaction, so it has attracted the attention of many researchers. This paper aims to summarize and analyze the research on teachers' questioning at home and abroad, hoping to help teachers.
First, the theoretical study of teachers' questions
(A) the function and role of questioning
Many researchers at home and abroad put forward their own suggestions on the function and function of questioning. Representative ones are: 1967 Psychologist Pat and others surveyed 190 primary school teachers and summarized the five functions of questioning. In 1973, Turner listed the function of 12 to ask questions. American teaching experts l.h. Clark and Ls. Starr thinks that classroom questioning has the function of 19. Scholars such as William Wilen, MargaretIshler and Richard Kindsvater summarized the five functions of questioning. Riggs inquired about the materials provided by 36 teachers and summed up the function of 12 questioning. Yao Andi, a domestic scholar, pointed out that questioning has seven functions. Song and others pointed out that questioning has the function of 10. The above conclusions are quite extensive and inclusive. It can be seen that the function and role of questioning are mainly manifested in two aspects.
For teachers, questioning can guide teaching and highlight the key points of learning; Check teaching, check the contents and skills that students at different levels have mastered and have not mastered, check students' ability, attitude and tendency, and reveal students' psychological process; Remedial teaching helps teachers as a reference to improve teaching and change teaching content, methods and progress. Diagnosis teaching, to diagnose the special difficulties that hinder students' learning; Manage teaching, manage students' learning and classroom order, and form a suitable learning environment; Evaluate teaching, understand teaching effect, and provide guidance for follow-up teaching.
For students, asking questions can arouse their interest in learning, attract their attention, stimulate their learning motivation and stimulate their interest and curiosity; Let the students recall the existing knowledge, evaluate, correct and strengthen the current concept of learning; Make students pay attention to the changes in the teaching process, promote the understanding of knowledge and skills, and promote memory; Let students actively participate in classroom interaction, such as expressing opinions and discussing, and strengthening communication between teachers and students; Promote thinking.
(B) the skills and art of teachers' questioning
Domestic scholars pay more attention to the skills and art of questioning, such as Li, Liu, Jin Chuanbao, Yao Andi, Zhang Donghong and others. Summarizing the research results of the above-mentioned scholars, they found that the skills and art of questioning are mainly embodied in the following five aspects: (1) In terms of design problems, key questions should be set in important places according to teaching needs; We should ask questions at all levels; Make the questions suitable for students' ability level; Express the problem clearly, in detail and accurately; Form a concise and reasonable problem structure; The difficulty and slope of the problem should be reasonable; Be good at asking inquiring questions. When asking questions, we should grasp the students' concentration and active thinking to ask questions; The object of questioning should be all-oriented, and the individual differences of students should be treated differently; Students should have equal opportunities to answer questions and encourage all students to participate; The difficulty of the problem should be from shallow to deep, from easy to difficult, step by step; The ways of asking questions are flexible and diverse. In waiting for the answer, students need to be given some time to think and answer. In reasoning and answering, teachers should pay attention to listening and respect students; When students can't answer knowledge questions, teachers should give answers directly; When dealing with low-level multiple-choice questions, teachers should directly comment on the answers of individual students; To deal with high-level questions, it is advisable to delay comments and summarize the answers after students express their opinions; Dealing with high-level issues should include diversity; Give students questions and answers to actively strengthen; Follow the students' answers and continue to ask questions. In terms of feedback, teachers should be given effective feedback.
Second, the empirical study of teachers' questions
(A) quantitative analysis of the problem
When studying the number of questions, the simplest question research is to count the total number and types of questions in the classroom, which attracts a large number of researchers. Judging from the total number of questions asked, the psychologist Stevens pointed out in the study of 19 12 that teachers ask about 395 questions every day, about 2-4 questions per minute, and the teacher's questioning time accounts for 80% of the teaching time. After that, the research on the number of problems has become a hot spot. Many data at home and abroad show that teachers ask more questions, especially in China, where teachers almost completely occupy the classroom. For example, a survey in Jing 'an District of Shanghai found that in primary school and junior high school, no matter Chinese or mathematics, the average number of times teachers ask questions in each class is more than 30 times (except for a Chinese class in grade nine). The number of classroom questions in junior high school is less than that in primary school. A large number of questions can certainly stimulate students to think positively, but there are too many questions. Based on a class of 45 minutes, there is one question every 12 minutes on average. Some classes actually asked forty or fifty questions in just 45 minutes, and the most one class asked 98 questions. Shen's survey also found that in 12 Chinese reading class, there are 34 questions in each class on average, of which 50 are the most, accounting for 23 minutes, and the least is 2 1 channel.
(2) Classification of problems
The research of problems must have a clear classification method, so the classification of problems is the focus of many researchers.
The simplest thing is to divide the questions into closed questions and open questions. Some researchers also call it "convergence" and "divergence".
The second influential classification is based on the cognitive level of the problem: the most famous is the six-level classification of the cognitive field based on Bloom: memory, understanding, application, analysis, synthesis and evaluation. On this basis, some researchers have carried out two-dimensional classification, classifying memory and understanding questions as low-level questions, and classifying applied, analytical, comprehensive and evaluation questions as advanced questions.
The third famous classification is the ternary intelligent structure based on guildford. He divided the problems into five categories: cognition, memory, divergent thinking, convergent thinking and evaluation. After that, Saunders divided the problems into seven categories: memory, transformation, explanation, application, analysis, synthesis and evaluation. Accordingly, Ge and Yaer also divided the problems into four categories: cognition-memory, convergence, diffusion and evaluation.
As for other classifications, there are many, some of which divide the problems into two categories, such as Keith A.Acheson and Meredith Damien Call. Some people divide the problems into three categories, such as David Hopkins, Morgan, saxton and Fraser, Sabrina, Cheng Xiaoqiao and Shen Guipeng. Some people divide the problems into four categories, such as Lach, Ashner and Asner. Some people divide the problems into five categories, such as Brophy Goodall and Charles of the United States. c？ Dinofan, and Zhang. Some people divide the problems into six categories, such as Zhang Xiaoqi. Some people even fall into seven categories, such as Gusyak.
The investigation on the types of classroom questioning shows that teachers' questioning tends to be low-level. Stevens' early research abroad found that most of the questions asked by teachers only required students to recall the information in the text directly. Later, other people's research results also show that about 60% of the questions asked by teachers require students to remember the information in the article, 20% require students to think, and 20% promote the development of teaching process. After studying the classroom teaching in senior high school, it is found that 90% of the problems are closed, while the open problems are only about 10%. By observing Bloom's cognitive classification, it is found that the first and second levels account for 80% of all cognitive problems, 80% of which require students to recall facts, while the fifth level is the opposite! The sixth problem is the smallest. The survey report in Jing 'an District, Shanghai found that: from the perspective of the types of questions, the factual memory comprehension questions account for about 80%. Shen found that in terms of the types of classroom questions, 93.63% teachers only investigated low-level cognitive activities, such as recalling facts and simply judging right and wrong. More than 95% of the problems are understandable.
Teachers' waiting methods
The research on teachers' waiting time mainly focuses on teachers' waiting time.
There are two kinds of waiting time: the first kind of waiting time (when the teacher starts to ask questions, the teacher asks the students to consider the answer time) and the second kind of waiting time (after a student answers, until the teacher or other students confirm or deny his answer, and then the teacher continues, the interval between the two).
The study found that many teachers did not give students enough time to think before asking questions. In fact, it is very important for both students and teachers to answer correctly. After comparative experiments, psychologists have increased the waiting time for asking questions by 3 seconds or more, and come to the conclusion that a little longer waiting time has a great influence on students' language behavior. For example, students will give longer and more answers to questions. In addition, the study shows that the waiting time of more than 3 seconds will also have a positive impact on teachers' behavior and attitude: teachers' questioning strategies are more diverse, teachers reduce the number of questions, improve the quality of questions and enrich the types of questions, and teachers ask some students questions that require complex information processing and high-level thinking.
(D) Teachers' coping style
Teachers need to respond to students' answers, which can provide students with feedback information, thus playing an important role in their learning and behavior.
The simplest teacher feedback can be divided into direct feedback and indirect feedback. In addition, many researchers have classified them according to their own research: for example, Hu Sen put forward six categories, Wright and Nat's parenting was divided into seven categories, Zahurik, Miller and Hughes were divided into 14 categories, Brophy and Goode were divided into eight categories, Flanders was divided into three categories, Changyu was divided into four categories, Cheng Xiaoqiao was divided into two categories, and Shen Guipeng was divided into two categories.
Representative is that Robert Jeffrey Sternberg in the United States divides the level of teachers' answering children's questions into seven grades, which is of great reference value for guiding teachers to answer students' questions. Level 1: Rejected. The second level: repeat questions. The third level: admit that you don't know the answer either. The fourth level: encourage the search for relevant information to solve problems, and then solve problems. Teachers' encouragement to find relevant information to solve problems can be divided into two situations: one is for teachers to find it themselves, and the other is to encourage students to find it. Level 5: Provide possible solutions to problems. Level 6: Encourage students to evaluate possible answers. Level 7: Encourage students to verify possible answers ⑦.
The survey of teachers' feedback shows that teachers' feedback is often positive, not negative; Very simple, not complicated. As far as quantity is concerned, according to statistics, praise accounts for 6% of the classroom teaching time, 8% of the time spent accepting students' opinions and 6% of the time spent criticizing. The survey report in Jing 'an District of Shanghai shows that the current responses to students' answers are at the level of repetition, restatement and correction, lacking questions, extension and level expansion, and too few enlightening questions. Compared with the number of questions, teachers' responses to students' answers, whether in language or expression, are too few. The only response is mainly encouragement and judgment, such as "very good", "right" and "wrong", and the language is quite simple. When students can't answer questions, different teachers have different degrees of encouragement and disappointment to students.
In addition, the research on teachers' questioning also includes: the relationship between seating arrangement and questioning, the relationship between teachers' response and students, and the influencing factors of teachers' questioning. In addition, many domestic researchers study teachers' questioning behavior from the perspective of classroom teacher-student interaction, with Wu Kangning, Cheng Xiaoqiao, Wu Yongjun, Shen Guipeng and others as representatives. They observed teachers' questions in the field of teacher-student interaction, studied the gender characteristics of questions, the relationship between students' positions and questions, the disciplinary characteristics of questions and the relationship between students' academic performance and questions, and also drew many valuable conclusions.
Third, research and reflection.
As far as the function and function of classroom questioning are concerned, their respective conclusions are quite extensive and inclusive. This also shows from another angle that classroom questioning is not only a simple question-and-answer behavior of "asking a question" and "answering a question", but also a complex teaching behavior with rich meaning. Questioning is closely related to students, teachers and classroom situations. Any problems, including those raised in class, can only be analyzed in pedagogy and mathematics in the specific situation where the problems occur. Breaking away from the specific classroom situation is the common deficiency of most classroom questioning studies at present. "The effectiveness of asking questions depends not only on the words expressed, but also on the sound effect, the focus and choice of words and the situation of asking questions. Questions can be asked in many ways, and each way determines whether your students accept this question and how to accept it. " ⑨
In China, the research on questioning in mathematics classroom (including general questioning research) pays more attention to the research on questioning skills. It seems that good questioning skills will produce good questions. Asking questions requires skills just like other questions, but "skills" is not a "good prescription" for asking "all diseases". If we think about all classroom behaviors, they all have two sides, namely "artistry" and "science". Classroom questioning research should go out of the misunderstanding of "skills" and move towards the road of science+art.
In the classification method of problems, there is basically no departure from the classical model of Bloom and others, although it is of certain significance to study it. However, our analysis is "hindsight" and "hindsight", which does not help to correct the teaching behavior at that time. In another class, everything has changed. "Yesterday's story" will not repeat itself today. Because teaching every hour every day is unrepeatable.
From the perspective of research methods, there are two research methods: one is based on the question and answer list. In other words, with a certain observation scale, it focuses on: how many times to ask questions, how many times to ask what kind of questions, when and how teachers wait for answers, and how teachers react. Undeniably, these studies can reflect the significance of classroom questioning from a certain angle. However, compared with other teaching behaviors, classroom questioning is difficult to reveal its historical significance and deep-seated educational and teaching significance. The second qualitative method. Some researchers recorded teachers' classroom questions by word-for-word recording, and revealed the characteristics of questions from the aspects of content, methods and responses to students. Some researchers have also conducted qualitative research on teachers' ideas about questioning by in-depth interviews, field tracking and other methods, such as the purpose and function of questioning, the understanding of students' questioning, the strategies and skills of questioning, etc., and have drawn many valuable conclusions, which are of great significance to revealing the deep-seated reasons of questioning. In recent years, with the rise of qualitative research methods, more and more people use qualitative research methods to study problems. However, compared with quantitative research, the quantity is still very small. In addition, in terms of quality, because some researchers have not mastered qualitative research methods, the credibility of the conclusion is not as reliable as that of quantitative research.
Generally speaking, the research on classroom questioning has made great progress in recent years, mainly in two aspects. First, the previous research on classroom questioning mostly stayed in theoretical research, and more researchers, including those who regarded questioning as an art of education and teaching, all thought about it theoretically. Now, at the practical level, especially in combination with subject teaching, such as mathematics teaching, there has been an empirical study of classroom questioning. In recent years, the research based on empirical basis has achieved more results. Second, in theoretical research, the perspective of theoretical thinking has changed greatly. In the past, the perspective of classroom questioning research was only on one plane, mainly focusing on the "question" and "answer" between teachers and students. At present, the perspective of classroom questioning research is from the philosophical height of "subjectivity" and from the three-dimensional perspective, focusing on the "dialogue" between teachers and students and highlighting the "intersubjectivity" of teaching activities.