Transcendental perceptual theory discusses why mathematics is possible, transcendental analytical theory discusses why natural science is possible, and transcendental dialectical theory discusses why metaphysics was impossible in the past. The transcendental methodology here is to talk about how metaphysics is possible as a science, that is, to discuss the conditions and foundation of metaphysics. Architecture is the "technique", that is, the method, that he used to construct a purely rational system. The most fundamental thing in the system is the unity of form, which makes knowledge an orderly system instead of the superposition of quantity. The knowledge in such a system is no longer accidental, but inevitable, complete and certain. (Kunst, the art here means plastic arts, and "modeling" has formal implications. )
The system pays attention to form, and "Rhapsody" is Rhapsody, so it may not be appropriate to translate it into fantasy. Compared with dreams that emphasize form, rhapsody points to its opposite "drunkenness", and rhapsody also refers to free (form) poetry, which is the opposite of form. What rationality requires is a form and system, a stipulation and order. In the formal system, knowledge as a material can support and promote the fundamental purpose of rationality, that is, to promote the overall upward generation of the system. This paper not only emphasizes the guidance of form to materials, but also mentions the generation of materials; But fundamentally speaking, Kant emphasizes that materials can only be generated in form, and form is the basis and condition for materials to exist.
The system is not a whole of permutation and combination or simple addition of heterogeneous knowledge, but has inherent formal unity. Kant even said that the system is unified, that is, the highest internal form of knowledge is unified, just like apperception in transcendental logic. Under the regulation and guidance of unified form, heterogeneous knowledge is in its proper place and the whole is in a harmonious state.
The concept of reason, that is, idea, Plato regards "idea" as a unified concept, a "one", a system of ideas from low to high. Kant's ideas here are pure and transcendental, and pure ideas should be understood from the highest level. Here I will first understand it as a highest form.
Kant emphasizes the purpose contained in the idea and the overall form consistent with the purpose. Aristotle has clearly pointed out that the formal reason is the purpose of the intermediate stage, and any form tends to its purpose. The concept of "one" is manifested in form and purpose. The idea in the whole knowledge, that is, the purpose and form in the whole, lies in the knowledge of all parts of the whole, which makes the whole form unified and directional. For example, if people are regarded as a whole, they can think of their feet as soon as they are mentioned (each part can be remembered in the knowledge of other parts), and people will not grow a third hand (without any unexpected addition). All parts of the whole are related, and some of them are produced on the premise of the whole, not from the outside (people eat to digest and absorb rice, not to hang on people).
The realization of ideas needs patterns, just as the realization of categories (applied to intuition) also needs patterns. Kant once said that patterns as representations are pure, on the one hand, they are intellectual, on the other hand, they are emotional. In Kant's view, the pattern should be generated according to the idea, put forward the purpose, and realize the idea in the whole knowledge, that is, stipulate the heterogeneity of essence and the order of each part, so that the architecture will have unity. Schema is the intermediary between thought and heterogeneous knowledge here.
The metaphysics of science needs structure, and the miscellaneous similarity and the accidental application of knowledge to various arbitrary external purposes are external and empirical. With the help of architecture, science can be deduced from the internal purpose of the whole and the purpose of making the whole possible. The model needs to meet three requirements, one is to contain the outline of the whole, the other is to divide all the links of the whole, and the third is to divide the whole from other whole according to the principle.
At first, the model and its definition are far from the concept, because the concept lies in the scientific system, which is still in the primary stage and does not fully embody the concept.
The founder of science cannot provide a stipulation for the whole scientific system without understanding the concept. This task is given to philosophers, and the clear concept provides the natural unity of the system, and the contents in the system are generally linked on this basis. The idea in the scientific system is based on reason itself, which also reflects the legislation of artificial nature in Kant's philosophy and the identity of subject and object obtained from it.
The emergence of the system is a process, which is one-way from incomplete to complete in history. Each system has its own rational model derived from self-expansion, and because of the unity of this source, there is also the unity of overall purpose between systems.
The structure of knowledge is constructed by pure reason, and Kant aims to find the formal unity of pure reason and the origin of knowledge system, which is also the identity of subject and object. The foothold of this work also includes intellectual rationality as an advanced cognitive ability, and the opposition between rational things and empirical things is also the opposition between ideas and miscellaneous things.
Historical knowledge and reasonable knowledge are an innate division, the former comes from factual knowledge, that is, from experience; The latter comes from the knowledge of principles, that is, through the deduction of setting principles. The knowledge originally given is obtained from the application of rationality and drawn from the source of rationality.
For Kant, Wolff's system is historical knowledge, which comes from experience and is externally given, not rationally applied. This kind of historical knowledge from experience is closed and can't go beyond its own expansion. In essence, it is just memory and recitation.
If a person's philosophical knowledge does not come from his own reason, it is historical, and he can only imitate other people's knowledge and cannot produce it himself. Learning philosophical knowledge needs to be drawn from the universal source of his own rationality, that is, the source. Such knowledge is the real rational knowledge of the subject.
The previous chapter here refers to the first chapter of transcendental methodology "pure rational training", and the concept of "entwerfen" here refers to "presenting its corresponding intuition a priori". Kant said: "Philosophical knowledge only examines the particularity in the universality, while mathematical knowledge examines the universality in the particularity and even in the individual, but it is still innate and relies on reason." The difference between philosophy and mathematics is formal, and mathematical knowledge (quantitative knowledge) can be constructed, that is, it can be displayed in an intuitive way; Philosophical knowledge (qualitative knowledge) can only be expressed by experience and intuition.
Kant intends to explain that philosophical knowledge objectively comes from rational and reasonable knowledge, but because it cannot be constructed, it can only be expressed intuitively through experience, so philosophical knowledge subjectively becomes historical knowledge in the subject's study of philosophical knowledge. And mathematical knowledge, because it can be constructed, is reasonable and rational both subjectively and objectively.
What mathematical knowledge needs is the construction of concepts, which is innate, free from the interference of empirical factors and unable to learn through experience. In this way, disciples also need to construct concepts by reason, which not only ensures that mathematics will not become historical knowledge in teaching, but also makes mathematics deterministic.
Philosophy can't be learned by nature. Studying philosophy historically can not expand philosophical knowledge, nor can it surpass our predecessors. We are studying the history of philosophy. We can only learn to do philosophical research, learn to develop and apply rationality, and construct philosophical knowledge with rationality.
Philosophy itself is a system of philosophical knowledge and a form. The real philosophical system is objective and based on the identity of subject and object, but the specific philosophical knowledge and system of each school are different.
Philosophy is an idea, and all schools of philosophy are copies of this idea. The copy of philosophy has the direction of approaching the philosophical idea, uncovering the sensory barrier and reaching the final blueprint.
In Kant's view, learning philosophy means learning philosophy, that is, exercising rational ability by using rational principles. However, rationality should also be alert to its own principles, trace back to the source of rational principles, and investigate the scope of application of rational principles, which is also the work that the First Criticism attempts to complete.
Philosophy does not achieve the formal unity and clear purpose of philosophical thought, but lacks the perfection of internal order and logic. In this way, it is difficult for philosophy to achieve universality, inevitability and certainty. Kant aims to point out the defects of previous philosophy and explore the direction for philosophy to move towards ideas.
Philosophy is the relationship between teleology of human reason and all knowledge based on human reason, while philosophers are human rational legislators who explore the principles and roots of human reason.
Mathematicians, natural scientists and logicians all use rationality to explore and study in a field, while philosophers examine the basis and conditions of their work, that is, human rationality, and also sort out and plan all kinds of specialized knowledge to make it conform to the fundamental purpose of human rationality.
The idea lies in human rationality, and the philosopher's legislation on human rationality is the idea of foundation and rationality itself, and it is the legislation of rationality on itself and the world.
There is only one supreme purpose, that is, the whole mission of mankind, and the fundamental purpose is subordinate to the highest purpose. Therefore, the philosophy about the highest purpose of human reason is moralism. If the performance of reasoning makes us know the world more clearly, then ethics based on practical rationality is related to people's life and actions in the world, and the highest purpose of human rationality is to survive better.
The two goals of human reason are nature and freedom. The former is aimed at real things (things that exist), while the latter is aimed at things that should exist (things that should exist). The natural law and moral law mentioned here are the laws established by human reason, and Kant's previous two criticisms investigated them respectively.
Kant pays attention to pure philosophy from pure reason, and all empirical disciplines, such as physics and astronomy, can be counted as empirical philosophy. The extension of philosophy is wider in ancient and modern times than in modern times.
Critical philosophy is an introduction to testing rational ability, while metaphysics is a pure philosophy based on and including all the systems of the former. Although mathematics is innate knowledge, it is excluded from metaphysics.
Kant has made the philosophical system very clear here. It can be said that Kant's philosophy is about form, all aspects of the system are forms, from high to low forms, knowledge is a possible principle, and the principles that practice needs to abide by are all forms. So Kant's philosophy is pure philosophy. The materials mentioned in Kant's first criticism are all used as concepts and do not contain any specific content. If it contains concrete materials, it has to be incorporated into pure philosophy and become empirical philosophy. Form is inherently inevitable, while matter is empirical and uncertain.
Morality, like mathematics, comes from several fundamental principles (axioms), but the difference is that the former principle comes from human reason and the latter axiom comes from the pure form of human intuition. Moral metaphysics is a pure philosophical form without considering empirical factors.
Knowledge from reason needs to be distinguished from empirical knowledge. Knowledge from reason will be combined with experience elements in application, but Kant wants to separate it and show it.
Metaphysics has always existed in human rational speculation, but it has not distinguished its components.
Knowledge has innate and acquired components, and Kant's previous metaphysics was not clearly pointed out and demarcated, which is the reason why metaphysics has not been realized for a long time.
Innate knowledge and empirical knowledge are two completely different kinds of knowledge. Metaphysics pursues the first principle of human knowledge. This definition is vague, and experience principle may be mixed in it, although it has more fundamental innate principle. For example, the intellectual concept derived from category and the first twelve categories. The empirical principle belongs to the innate principle. The latter is the first and the former is the last. But even this would not be enough Kant wants to find the boundary between nature and experience.
Subordinate levels can be subdivided infinitely, just like Plato's idealism. The concepts of "moving" and "static" belong to the concept of "being", and "rising" and "falling" can belong to the concept of "moving". Kant transformed this idea of searching for some universality and abstract level of * * * into the idea of dividing innate and empirical elements and looking for innate elements for experience.
Metaphysics and mathematics are innate knowledge, and philosophers in the past have realized their homogeneity. Descartes replaced the four causes of scholasticism with mathematical methods, and Spinoza used geometric axioms to engage in metaphysics. But few philosophers tell the difference between mathematics and metaphysics. Kant believes that mathematics is a kind of knowledge judged by the innate structure of concepts, while metaphysics comes from concepts.
Difficulties encountered by metaphysics in the past.
The only special cognitive ability of pure innate knowledge comes from rationality (including intellectuality), and the unity of rational ability ensures the unity of pure innate knowledge. Metaphysics should present this knowledge in a system. "iwie sie ist" refers to essentia, pointing to ontology and the field of ontology, while "wiesie sein stolte" refers to the ideal world, pointing to moral philosophy and theology. This kind of "existentialism/theology" is a typical metaphysical dual structure that Heidegger thinks.
Metaphysics in a narrow sense is the metaphysics of "what is". Transcendental philosophy is the foundation, which only examines transcendental knowledge and its conceptual principles and rationality itself, and does not examine specific objects, that is, examines the transcendental condition basis and its occurrence process of cognitive objects. The pure rational study of nature regards nature as the sum of the given objects, which are actually the objects of experience. A reasonable study of nature means that the object of investigation is a rational object, that is, a phenomenon. But we can't know the thing itself behind the phenomenon.
There are two kinds of applications of rationality in the investigation of rational natural science, namely naturalness, immanence and application in concrete experience, and supernatural, transcendental and beyond all experience (transcendental connection of experience objects). It is transcendental world knowledge that takes the internal connection of transcendental nature as the object; Knowledge related to all natural and supernatural beings is transcendental knowledge about God.
The "transcendental knowledge about God" here seems to contradict Kant's emphasis on the lack of knowledge about things themselves and the existence of God as an idea, but perhaps Kant is talking about the natural science about the relationship between God and nature, not about God's knowledge.
Inherent natural science looks at nature from the perspective of self-awareness and regards nature as the sum of sensory objects. The way nature gives us is given to us through intuition. The innate condition of this need is the perceptual form and intellectual category of time and space. For objects with external senses, we visualize them in the form of space, that is, we visualize them into tangible nature; The internal sensory object is the intuition of time form, taking the soul as the object, but it still recognizes the phenomenon that conforms to time form, that is, rational psychological understanding.
Kant completed the innate division of rational architecture here and divided metaphysics into four parts. Because Kant's division here and the definition of its parts are not very regular in the text, here is a summary:
1. Philosophy (the system of all philosophical knowledge)
1. 1. Pure philosophy (knowledge from pure reason)
1. 1. 1. Criticism (check the introduction of rational ability in all pure innate knowledge (preview)). )
1. 1.2. Metaphysics (from all philosophical knowledge (truth and falsehood) that is purely rational and systematically related). )
? 1. 1.2. 1. Natural metaphysics in speculative application (metaphysics in a stricter sense)
1.1.2.1.1.Transcendental philosophy (only looking at intellectuality, but in all systems related to the concepts and principles of general objects? Reason itself, without assuming that the object will be given out (that is, ontology). )
1. 1.2. 1.2. Pure rational learning of nature (investigating nature, that is, the sum of given objects (whether they are? Given the senses, or given another intuition, if we want to say so). )
1.1.2.1.2.1.The transcendental knowledge about the world (is intrinsic, can the knowledge about nature be applied to experience (concretely)? In this range, what aims at nature and takes internal relations as its own object is one of all nature? study )
1.1.2.1.2.1.Reasonable physics (the object is the object of external senses, so what is the total of these objects? Harmony is tangible nature. )
1.1.2.1.2.1.2. rational psychology (the object is the object of the inner sense, that is, the soul, and according to one? Just like the basic concept of the soul, thinking is natural. )
1.1.2.1.2.2. The transcendental knowledge about God, that is, rational theology (is transcendental and aims to transcend empirical objects? Is the connection that is above all experience and the external connection is its own object, all nature and a superego? However, the existence of associated natural science)
1. 1.2.2. Practical moral metaphysics.
1.2. Empirical philosophy (rational knowledge gained from empirical principles)
It can be seen that "reasonable cosmology" did not appear in the division before Kant, and it is directly put forward here, which may be related to one or several concepts put forward before.
This kind of division comes from the concept of the origin of pure reason, which is carried out according to the architectural apriori rather than empirically, and is definite and unchangeable.
The question that Kant wants to answer is: How can we acquire innate knowledge from the object of experience and achieve metaphysics? How to understand the essence of things according to the innate principle and realize the reasonable study of nature? According to the previous division, metaphysics here should refer to transcendental philosophy. Kant's answer is: to examine the occurrence structure of our experience, that is, how the objects of inner and outer senses occur through "I think" and material concepts respectively.
This article discusses the position of empirical psychology. Kant believes that it should not be confused with metaphysics, but should be temporarily attributed to applied philosophy, and its ultimate destination is anthropology.
Metaphysics has several functions here: first, it is the defender of religion; Second, a science that constrains rationality; Third, prevent speculative rationality from being destroyed in morality and religion. Metaphysics is very important to Kant.
In Kant's view, there are only natural metaphysics, moral metaphysics and criticism in the true sense. They all have a purpose and are closely related to the direction of human existence. However, empirical knowledge such as mathematics and natural science is not directly consistent with the fundamental purpose of human beings, and metaphysical knowledge is needed to achieve the goal.
Culture is the cultivation of culture and civilization. Here, it should mean that metaphysics has a guiding and limiting effect on human reason, guiding human reason conforms to the fundamental destination of human beings and limiting human reason from crossing the border. Metaphysics should also lay the foundation for the possibility of specific scientific and the application of science. Moreover, metaphysics is more often used as a negative side, that is, a negative role to prevent mistakes than to expand knowledge. Metaphysics should lead all other disciplines to the fundamental goal of mankind, and Kant is talking about universal happiness here.
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