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Chapter VII Thinking in General Psychology ~ 2020053 1
Written in front: I am extremely excited and under great pressure when the psychology postgraduate course is officially launched. Excitement comes from one's own preferences, and stress comes from fear of unfamiliar things across disciplines. So I decided to sort out and analyze what I learned after each class, sum up my understanding and write it here. As a follow-up and supervision of your own study, if you are interested in Jane, you can study and discuss together and make progress together.

Instructor: Tian

Excerpts and summary of notes: Giant Mountain

Tian teacher began the seventh chapter with a story:

Thinking is unique to human beings, and the computer is off. It only calculates according to the rules specified by human beings, and it cannot create things that do not exist.

The first section of the general concept of thinking

First, the concept and characteristics of thinking

Definition: Thinking is the human brain's understanding of the essential characteristics and internal relations of objective things. Thinking is an advanced form of cognition.

Features:

(1) Generality: It refers to extracting the same characteristics and laws of a class of things on the basis of perceptual materials.

Function:

1, people's understanding has got rid of the limitations of specific things and direct dependence on things.

2. Generalization is the premise of concept formation and the basis of "migration"

The level of generalization shows the level of thinking to some extent. The higher the level of people's understanding, the higher the level of generalization of things.

(2) Indirectness: refers to people's indirect understanding of objective things with the help of certain media and knowledge experience.

Function: beyond the limitation of perception, reveal the essence and law of things.

(3) Reorganization of experience: It means that people constantly update and reorganize the existing knowledge and experience in their minds.

Function: It is a psychological process of exploring and discovering new things.

(Inference test: Raven test)

The process of analysis and comprehensive thinking

? Design a trip, not a car.

? Case: IDEO designed the intercity high-speed rail for the National Railway Company of the United States.

? Ten links: understanding, planning, starting, entering the station, purchasing tickets, waiting for the bus, getting on the bus, arriving at the station, and continuing (the next trip).

Second, the type of thinking

(A) according to the form of thinking:

Intuitive action thinking: action; Building blocks, operating

Image thinking: intuitive image and representation; Painting; Children learn numbers.

Logical thinking: words, judgment, reasoning and conclusion.

Make good use of charts-why is it better to say a picture than a thousand words?

Family planning mind map; Mind map of communication and speech

(B) Based on the basis of thinking

Empirical thinking: relying on daily life experience

Theoretical thinking: relying on scientific concepts and judgments

(C) according to the characteristics of the thinking process

Intuitive thinking: understanding thinking when facing new problems and new phenomena.

Analytical thinking: logical thinking, following strict logical laws.

(4) According to the different directions of exploring the answers to questions:

Convergent thinking: according to known information, using familiar rules, seeking common ground while reserving differences and solving problems; The same is true of experience and reasoning.

Divergent thinking: seeking differences and generating unique new ideas in different directions; Thinking: the use of tires

(5) Whether thinking is creative:

Reconstruct thinking: We read books and imagine Daiyu, and build houses according to the drawings.

Creative thinking: Cao Xueqin writes about Daiyu and designs drawings.

Story sharing:

Section II Statement

First, the appearance

(A) the concept and classification

Concept: refers to the image of things that appear in the mind when things are not in sight. From the perspective of information processing, it refers to the vivid reproduction of things that do not exist at present.

Type:

1. Channel division: visual representation, auditory representation and motion representation.

2. The division of creativity: memory representation and imagination representation.

"Does this frog have lips and a short tail?"

"How do you turn on and off the tap in your house?"

(B) the characteristics of the representation

1, intuition, representation is produced on the basis of perception, so it is similar to perception.

Features: the perceptual image is vivid and vivid, and the image is vague and vague; The image of perception is persistent and stable, while the image of representation is unstable and changeable; The image of perception is complete, but the image of representation is incomplete.

Such as: essential image.

Exercise: Close your eyes and imagine what a dog looks like. Then compare it with the "dog" you actually see and experience the difference in the perceptual image of the moon.

2. Most of them

Features: Representing the general outline and main features of things, it is a generalized and generalized image.

3, operability

Features: You can manipulate the images in your mind.

Psychological rotation experiment: the results show that the reaction time is the shortest when the letters are vertical; With the increase of rotation angle, the reaction time also increases. The longest reaction time is when the letters are rotated to 180.

(C) the brain representation mechanism

Do appearance and perception have the same brain mechanism? Research shows that appearance and perception may have the same brain mechanism.

(D) the role of representation in thinking

1 provides a perceptual basis for the formation of the concept. From an intuitive point of view, representation is close to perception, and from a general point of view, representation is close to thinking.

2. Promote problem solving

Section 3 Grasping Concepts

First, the concept of mastery (concept formation)

Concept: Concept is the general name of a class of things with the same attributes, and it is the reflection of the human brain on the essential characteristics of objective things.

(A) Connotation and extension

Connotation: the reflection of concept on the unique attributes of things

Extension: the concrete thing that belongs to this concept

The deeper the connotation, the less the extension;

Type:

According to the quantities that reflect the properties of things and their relationships: conjunctive concept, relational concept and disjunctive concept.

According to the naturalness of formation: natural concept and artificial concept.

Prototype: game

Second, the experiment of concept formation

It refers to the process that individuals inherit and learn the knowledge and experience contained in concepts from adults by means of language.

(A) the experiment of artificial concept formation

? Hull's radical concept

? Bruner's Concept Judgment

(B) the formation of artificial concepts

1, hypothesis testing theory: the process of concept formation is the process of constantly putting forward hypotheses and verifying hypotheses.

2. For example, a prototype is a concept formed by people matching an example with a prototype.

Third, the concept structure theory.

Hierarchical network model: various generic concepts are organized together according to the logical up-down relationship. In the network, the higher the concept level, the higher the level of abstract generalization. The characteristic of each concept is to realize hierarchical storage.

Activation diffusion model: conceptual network

Semantic priming effect

Section 4 Reasoning

Inference: A thinking activity that draws new conclusions according to general principles or induces general laws from specific things or phenomena. The former is called deductive reasoning, and the latter is called inductive reasoning.

Logic pays attention to the formation of reasoning, while psychology pays attention to the psychological process of reasoning.

Syllogism

Second, linear reasoning (linear syllogism)

Third, conditional reasoning.

1. All the letters between elements are on the back. Which cards must be selected to prove the truth of this rule?

Answer: e, 7

Most people choose e, 4.

Confirmation tendency: people tend to confirm certain assumptions or rules, but rarely falsify them.

2. Change the above proposition to: If someone drinks beer, this person must be over 19 years old.

Up to 74. 1% of the subjects got it right.

Proof: Reasoning related to life experience is better.

Section 5 problem solving

I. Concepts and classifications

Definition: the thinking process of searching in the problem space in order to reach the target state from the initial state of the problem.

Standard problem

Every 24 hours, the water lilies in the pond will double. On the first day of spring, there is a water lily in the pond. After 60 days, water lilies filled the pond. When will there be a half pond water lily?

Epiphany problem

Rewrite the English letter NEWDOOR to form an English word.

Classification:

1, clearly defined problems and vaguely defined problems.

2. Antagonistic issues and non-confrontational issues, such as Go and Chess; Algebraic problem, geometric problem

3. The problem of rich semantics and the problem of poor semantics are relative.

Second, the strategy to solve the problem

1, algorithm strategy

2. Heuristic methods: means-target analysis method, reverse search method and mountain climbing method.

The difference between the means-target analysis method and the mountain climbing method is that the former includes: sometimes people have to temporarily increase the difference between the target state and the initial state in order to achieve their goals.

Third, the factors affecting problem solving

1, the role of knowledge and experience:

? Expert and novice: the amount of knowledge and the way of knowledge organization are different.

Comprehensive analysis shows that

Knowledge is the wing of innovative thinking.

? A profound knowledge base in a certain field-Ten-year rule

It takes at least ten years for a person to grow from a beginner to a master.

–Potential development time based on talents.

–The accumulated time required to receive rigorous skills training and master professional knowledge and principles in this field.

–Time and accumulation required for professional changes.

2, the role of irrelevant information

In a small town, 10% of the residents' telephones are not registered in the telephone book. Now we randomly select the names of 300 people from the phone book and ask how many people's phone numbers are not registered in the phone book.

3, the way of problem representation

Four lines and nine points, okay?

4, mentality, people's psychological preparation before engaging in an activity has an impact on the activities they engage in later.

Use the material as shown in the figure to stand the candle on the wall like a wall lamp:

5. Function fixation: people tend to give certain functions to certain objects.

There are a lot of things on the five dollars. How can I get the money out without touching it?

How about changing five dollars into a blank sheet of paper?

Other factors:

Migration: the influence of existing knowledge and experience on solving new problems.

Prototype inspiration: inspired by examples in real life, find ways to solve problems (Archimedes)

Motivation and emotion

interpersonal relationship

Fourth, creativity and imagination.

(1) Creativity is a psychological process in which people solve problems in novel ways and produce new products with social value.

The writer has created a new work.

The engineer designed a new machine.

(B) the psychological component of creativity

1. Imagination: Imagination is a thinking process of processing and transforming existing representations and creating new images.

Unintentional imagination: an imagination that comes into being involuntarily under certain stimulation without a certain purpose (dream is an extreme example of unintentional imagination; Hallucination is an unintentional imagination generated in an abnormal mental state.

Intentional imagination: under the influence of a certain purpose, intention and task, consciously imagine.

Intentional imagination can be divided into recreative imagination, creative imagination and fantasy.

Fantasy is an imagination related to people's wishes and pointing to the future.

2. Convergent thinking and divergent thinking, and the combination of convergence and divergence at different levels constitutes creative thinking.

The characteristics of divergent thinking: fluency, flexibility and uniqueness, are also a measure of creativity.

Fluency: the number of divergent projects per unit time;

Flexibility: the scope or dimension of different projects;

Uniqueness: can put forward extraordinary, unique and novel opinions on the problem.

Incomplete graph

3. Long-distance association ability

Process: preparation, brewing, inspiration and verification.

Example: food, catcher, heat.

Dog: dog food, dog trap, hot dog.

(classification test)

4. Non-intelligence factors related to creativity

Perseverance, self-confidence, willpower, sense of responsibility, enthusiasm, diligence, interest and imagination.

Section 6 Decision-making

1. What is a decision? Decision-making refers to the process of choosing among several options.

Type: deterministic decision and risk decision.

Second, rational decision-making view.

(1) classical decision theory: know the problem and goal, get all relevant information, know everything about possible schemes, know the consequences of possible schemes, and evaluate them; Be able to pursue the best plan and maximize personal interests.

(2) Behavioral decision theory: The rationality of decision makers is limited, and all available methods cannot be found, which is controlled by factors such as time and energy.

Third, the actual decision-making process

(A) the expected utility theory

? How do we actually choose?

Option 1: You have an 80% chance of earning 8000 yuan.

Option 2: you can definitely earn 6000 yuan.

According to expected utility theory, people should choose one, but most people choose two.

Option 1: You have an 80% chance of losing 8000 yuan.

Option 2: you can definitely lose 6000.

According to expected utility theory, people should choose two, but most people choose one.

This experiment proves that people's actual choices cannot be explained by expected utility theory.

(B) Prospect theory

1979 kahneman pointed out that most people are risk-averse when they get it and risk-averse when they face losses. Because it is more sensitive to loss than to gain. Just like the pain of losing 100 yuan is higher than the happiness of gaining 100 yuan, which is the same as the above experiment.

1, representative heuristic: when people estimate the probability of an event, they are influenced by its similarity with the basic characteristics of the people they belong to.

2. Accessibility heuristic: refers to the phenomenon that tends to evaluate the probability of an event or phenomenon according to the difficulty obtained from memory.

Play games:

Question: Is there more men or women in the above table? How many people are there respectively?

Judgment: Are there more words starting with R or words with R as the third letter in English?

Conclusion: People usually think that there are more words starting with R, but in fact, the latter is more than the former, because it is easier for people to find words starting with R from memory.

3. Anchoring and adjustment heuristic: It means that people make an initial estimate according to the given information, and then adjust the initial estimate according to the current problems.

Estimate the product of the following numbers in 5 seconds:

Group a: 1? 2 ? 3 ? 4 ? 5 ? 6 ? 7 ? eight

Group b: 8? 7 ? 6 ? 5 ? 4 ? 3 ? 2 ? 1

Results: The average value of group A was 5 12, the average value of group B was 2250, and the actual value was 40320. It shows that the initial estimate is very important.

? Nobel laureate in economics: Kahneman

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