Xia, Shang and Zhou laid the rudiment of science and technology in China. At this time, China entered the Bronze Age, and the casting and smelting technology of bronzes was superb. At this time, primitive porcelain also appeared.

Especially in the Spring and Autumn Period and the Warring States Period, China's ancient scientific and technological system was basically laid in this period. At this time, iron was widely used in China, and steelmaking technology and cast iron softening technology appeared at the same time. At this time, many large-scale water conservancy projects have been completed, including Dujiangyan and Zheng Guoqu. The decimal system is established by mathematical method; One of the earliest catalogues appeared in the world; The length of the tropic year is measured accurately. The theory of traditional Chinese medicine was initially established. During the Qin and Han Dynasties, with the consolidation of feudal system, all kinds of ancient science and technology in China have matured. Nine Chapters of Arithmetic defines the ancient mathematical system of China. Papermaking has been invented and greatly improved. The construction of the Great Wall reflected the advanced construction technology in China at that time. The seismograph invented by Zhang Heng is the earliest seismograph in the world.

In agriculture, a rotation system has been established. Shennong's Classic of Materia Medica and Treatise on Febrile Diseases have great influence on the development of Chinese medicine in later generations. Nine Chapters of Arithmetic defines the ancient mathematical system of China. During this period, papermaking was invented and greatly improved; Shipbuilding technology is very mature. The construction of the Great Wall embodies the development of architectural technology. China's ancient science and technology developed greatly in the Song Dynasty, among which Shen Kuo was an outstanding representative. At this time, China's four great inventions came out one after another and made great contributions to world civilization.

The Song Dynasty was the peak of China's ancient scientific and technological development. Just like the prosperity of administration and art, the Southern Song Dynasty was also an exciting period of technological innovation. Shen Kuo (103 1- 1095), born in Qiantang, Hangzhou (now Hangzhou, Zhejiang), was a scientist and reformer in the Northern Song Dynasty. In his later years, he wrote a notebook masterpiece Meng Qian Bi Tan in Zhenjiang Meng Xi Park. A very knowledgeable scientist, one of the most outstanding scientists in Chinese history. Be proficient in astronomy, mathematics, physics, chemistry, geology, meteorology, geography, agriculture and medicine; He is also an outstanding engineer and an outstanding diplomat. He is a bit like Leonardo da Vinci in many ways. Besides philosophy, he is also interested in many practical subjects, and he is very professional. This is in line with the scholar gentleman model advocated by Confucianism. But Shen Kuo and his contemporaries went further than the sage said to investigate and study things and raised them to the category of scientific inquiry. For example, in Shen Kuo's diary, he observed fossils of marine life in rock formations much higher than the present sea level. Like leonardo da vinci in the Italian Renaissance, but three centuries before the latter, he made a correct inference and wrote the first statement about the geomorphology theory of ground uplift. The science and technology of the Yuan Dynasty reached or made great achievements, among which astronomy, mathematics and even medicine were in an advanced position in the world at that time. At that time, leading Arab and Persian science and technology were introduced into China. Before Yuan Shizu Kublai Khan ascended the throne, he recruited "hermits". They translated and brought with them astronomical works, such as Ptolemy's Anthology of Astronomy and Ibn Yunus's Hakim Catalogue (also translated into Hakim Calendar). 1260, inherited the old system of Jin people and established four rooftops; 127 1 year, Huisi Tiantai was formally established, 13 12 year, Huisi Tian Jian was established. Later, a large number of astronomers, represented by Zamarudin (also translated as Zamarudin and Zamarudin), were appointed to manage this kind of work.

China people began to use Arabic numerals at this time.

1280, when the mathematicians and astronomers Wang Xun and Guo Shoujing of Yuan Dynasty worked out the calendar, they not only listed the cubic interpolation formula ("calling difference method"), but also made careful calculations with the pile-based method, calling difference method, Pythagorean method and vector division method, among which the arc triangle method invented by Muslims was applied to the circle division method, and the "vector division method" was obtained.

It is generally believed that some of Euclid's Elements of Geometry was translated by Xu Guangqi in Ming Dynasty with the help of Italian Matteo Ricci and introduced to China (the first six volumes of Elements of Geometry were translated together), but some scholars (Fang Hao's History of Sino-Western Communication) believe that this book was brought to China by Muslims who came to China before Yuan Dynasty.

/kloc-After the establishment of the Ming Dynasty in the middle and late 4th century, due to the expansion of the imperial examination stereotyped writing model and the prevalence of abacus calculation, the ancient mathematics based on calculation in China declined.

In the Yuan Dynasty, Chinese medicine developed greatly, and four schools of thought appeared in the Jin and Yuan Dynasties. On the basis of inheriting the tradition, medicine has become eclectic and exchange needed goods, greatly enriching the content of medical knowledge. Hui Hui Fang (hereinafter referred to as Fang) is a large comprehensive Hui Hui medical classic in China (the author is unknown). It has 36 volumes, and now some surviving copies can be found in Beijing Library. The book is mostly written in Chinese, with many Arabic and Persian medical terms and Chinese transliteration. As can be seen from the few remaining catalogues, the prescription is a package.

Including internal medicine, surgery, gynecology, pediatrics, orthopedics and dermatology, it is rich in content and has the characteristics of combining Chinese and western medicine; Scholars who study the history of Chinese medicine infer from the rest that there are about 6,000 ~ 7,000 prescriptions in this prescription, and its value is equivalent to China's ancient medical book "Secrets from Outside Taiwan".

Today's Beijing was established on the basis of the Yuan Dynasty. As far as architectural achievements are concerned, the Yuan Dynasty is mostly a treasure of architectural art, which enjoys a good reputation at home and abroad. The main designer and builder of the technology of the Yuan Metropolis is the Muslim architect Iheidie Earrings who came to China. It is hard to imagine that this architect can make use of the traditional architectural features of China and combine the advanced architectural styles of the world to design a grand, well-planned Yuandu, which is in harmony with nature. A large number of experts, scholars and craftsmen also participated in the design and construction of the capital of the Yuan Dynasty.

Generally speaking, the Yuan Dynasty was the crystallization of Chinese wisdom and sweat. Yuan Dadu was founded in 1267 and completed in 1285 (the former Jinzhongdu city site was located in the east of Lianhuachi in southwest Beijing, and Yuan Dadu New City was built in the northeast of Zhongdu Old City).

129 1 year, Guo Shoujing directed the construction of the canal from Yuan Dadu to Tongzhou. From Tongzhou to Yuandadu, he designed seven sluices, each about half a kilometer apart, and also designed Doumen. It is through the opening and closing of sluices and Doumen that Guo Shoujing regulates the water levels in various sections of the canal and guides ships to pass smoothly. After the completion of the project, Yuan Shizu personally named this 164-mile-long canal "Tonghui River". Tonghui River is a masterpiece in the history of engineering construction in China, and its ingenious methods are basically the same as those used in some foreign canals.

During the period of Yuan Shizu, he began to attach importance to agriculture, and formulated policies conducive to agricultural development, which greatly improved the level of agriculture. Wang Zhen's Agricultural Book, with 37 volumes (currently 36 volumes), is a comprehensive and systematic exposition of agricultural production in ancient China. The whole book is about 1.3 million words and more than 300 pictures. The full text is divided into three parts: Nong Sang Tong Ji, Gu Bai Pu and Nong Qi Tu. "Agriculture, Forestry, Animal Husbandry and Fishery Water Conservancy" includes a comprehensive exposition of agriculture, forestry, animal husbandry and fishery water conservancy, and puts forward an important farming idea of "being in harmony with time, place and people". Baigupu introduced the varieties, characteristics, cultivation, planting, harvesting, storage and utilization of various crops. In particular, Wang Zhen divided crops into six categories: grain, vegetable, fruit and miscellaneous, and was the founder of crop taxonomy in China. In addition, the author's description of plant characters is unprecedented. Atlas of agricultural machinery is the core part of agricultural books. This part introduces in detail 257 kinds of agricultural machinery in 20 categories, such as field system, granary, boat and car, irrigation, sericulture, fiber weaving, hemp, etc., with 306 illustrations, which is more valuable than all previous books on agricultural machinery, even the ancient China.

In letterpress printing, Wang Zhen designed wooden movable type and rotary typesetting frame, and printed Jingde County Records with wooden movable type in 1298. His "Making Movable Type Printing Calligraphy" (attached to the end of the book "Agricultural Books") is the earliest scientific and technological document that systematically introduces movable type typesetting and printing. The scientific and technological achievements of the Ming Dynasty are like stars, all walks of life have made extraordinary achievements, and many famous masterpieces have emerged.

1, scientific works

Li Shizhen's Compendium of Materia Medica (1578); Zhu Zaiyu's New Theory of Law (1584); Pan Jixun's Overview of River Defense (1590); Cheng Dawei's unified algorithm (1592); Tu Benjun's misunderstanding in Fujian and China (1596); Xu Guangqi's encyclopedia of agricultural management (1633); Song Yingxing Tiangong Kaiwu (1637); Xu Xiake's Travels of Xu Xiake (1640); Wu Youxing's Theory of Plague (1642).

In just over 60 years, so many excellent scientific monographs have appeared, which is unprecedented in the history of China. As pointed out by the researchers, the number of western books shipped to China at that time was staggering, covering almost all the knowledge of theology, philosophy, science, literature and art after the Renaissance. At this time, Copernicus's "Heliocentrism" and the Western "Earth View" were introduced together with Catholic theology.

2. Translate the work

In Xu Guangqi, "If you want to win, you must be able to pass; Under the guidance of the ideological principle of "translation must be done first" and the goal that "those who seek Tao and art should be open-minded and open-minded, so that they can learn well in the past three thousand years and learn well in my year", with the support of the Ming government, Chinese people consciously and pertinently translated western mathematical engineering books on a large scale. Among them, there are (including translators or authors) in the translation bibliography that can be known:

Matteo Ricci and Xu Guangqi, 65,438+0,607, Xiong Sanba, 65,438+0,665,438+0,654,38+0, Taixi Water Law, Xiong Sanba and Xu Guangqi, 65,438+0,665,438+02. 16 13 Matteo Ricci, 16 14 Matteo Ricci and Li Zhizao, 16 14 Lu, Yang Mano, 166544. Fu and Li Zhizao traveled all over the world in 1626, Fu and Li Zhizao in 1628, in 163 1 and Su Yu 1636. 1637 "Kunyu Gezhi (A Complete Collection of Mining and Metallurgy)" German mining and metallurgist George Bauer, Tang Ruowang, Yang Zhihua, Ten Architectural Books Translated by Huang Hongxian: Mathematical Notes of Ancient Roman Architect Vitruvius; Various ingenious mechanical devices of Dutch mathematician and military engineer Simon steffen; Original works of Italian engineering and technical expert Rameri (Latin version); Cologne version; Measurement significance; giacomo's celestial motion theory; Copernicus's Copernican astronomy summary; Kepler's Roman version; voyage in the Mediterranean; giacomo Rozhouyi; Jacques Besson; Pierre+leconte invented the manufacture and use of geometric astronomical radiometer for land and sea, magnetic measurement, Guillaume Denotene, the magic medicine for vomiting, Sarah Angelou, Claude Lei Ju, the salinity, tide and current theory of Atlantic and Mediterranean.

At that time, there were other translations and creations, such as Illustration of Distant Western Wonders (from, Deng, et al., 1627), Outline of Personal Description of Taixi (1635), Illustration of Personal Description (1635) and Law of the West (. Chongzhen almanac, physical knowledge, degrees, Taixi law sequence, Yun Xuan diagram, geometric theory, geometric usage, Taixi arithmetic, six ways of western Confucianism, academic debate, sun, moon and stars (Lu Zhong in the apocalypse period)

3. Geometric elements

Xu Guangqi believes that "to be outstanding, we must first understand", which shows that in his mind, "understanding" Chinese and western is the first step, and "surpassing" western learning is the purpose. In Xu Guangqi's scientific thought, translation is the basis and the only way to learn advanced western science and technology. Under the conditions at that time, Xu Guangqi attached great importance to translation and other communication work, and paid attention to cultivating his own western talents through translation work. Let astronomy students learn western law and teach it in person. "Let future generations learn from it, so that they can make progress and recover better than today." In this regard, Ji Zhigang commented: Today, when the Chinese nation once again stands among the nations of the world, when we realize that "innovation is the soul of national progress" and "innovation is also an inexhaustible motive force for the country's prosperity", Xu Guangqi's scientific thought of "mastering everything and surpassing everything" is even more brilliant. /kloc-in the spring of 0/607, Xu Guangqi and Matteo Ricci translated the first six volumes of Elements of Geometry. As a Christian who converted to Matteo Ricci, Xu Guangqi did not choose religious classics, but first translated Geometry, a classic work of western ancient mathematics. He said, "The Elements of Geometry" is a master of degrees, so Fiona Fang was clumsy and straightforward, and used it as a criterion. ..... After graduating from school, from the bright to the dark, from doubt to trust, not for use, for the foundation used, it can be said that the shape of everything is really a sea of learning ... "I explained the essence of geometry to China people for the first time.

4. Chongzhen almanac

In the second year of Chongzhen, that is, 2 1,1June 629, the calculation of the solar eclipse in Qin Dynasty was wrong, but Xu Guangqi's calculation with western learning was consistent with the actual measurement. Xu Guangqi, then the Minister of Rites, once again suggested amending the calendar. In 2000, Emperor Chongzhen approved Xu Guangqi's calendar revision plan and ordered the establishment of a calendar bureau, led by Xu Guangqi, to compile a new calendar. And asked him to "gather all his strength, listen with an open mind, accept all western methods, and strive to integrate different viewpoints." Under the command of Emperor Chongzhen, Xu Guangqi set up the West Bureau in Qin. During the period from1629 to1634, Xu Guangqi, Li Zhizao and Li Tianjing successively revised their calendars from western countries and appointed westerners Tang Ruowang (Germany), giacomo Luo (Italy), Niccolo Longobardi (Italy) and Deng Hanyu (J.Terrentius,1576).

During the Chongzhen period, there were also people who opposed the western calendar. At that time, Wei, a commoner, wrote two books, Li Yuan and Li Liang, which were dedicated to the imperial court and criticized Xu Guangqi's appointment of Western France, but he was not interfered by the administration. The government set up the East Bureau, a folk calendar institution for him, and had an equal and open debate with the Western Calendar Bureau, the former Grand Calendar Bureau and the Uighur Calendar Bureau led by Xu Guangqi. Debate with Wei, Xu Guangqi recorded in the book "Academic Degree Debate", entitled "Debate with Wei Lijun's Manuscript". "In the struggle of more than ten years, there have been eight positive contests between Chinese and Western calendars, and finally the Western calendar won eight victories, thus proclaiming the correctness of the Chongzhen calendar." It is in this good atmosphere that a hundred schools of thought contend and a hundred flowers blossom that the calendar reform organized by Xu Guangqi, Li Tianjing and others conquered people's hearts.

Calendar of Chongzhen is a large-scale series compiled with the support of the Ming government headed by Emperor Chongzhen, which introduces the knowledge of western mathematics, physics and astronomy. The almanac of Chongzhen (volume *** 137) includes more than 30 books, such as Astrology, Chaos and Index of the Stars. Among them, it refers to the relatively new astronomical knowledge in Europe at that time, which was not even fully accepted: Kepler/KOOC-0/6/KOOC-0/9' s Theory of Cosmic Harmony,/KOOC-0/62/KOOC-0/'s Copernican Astronomy Outline, and Tycho disciple Longo Montanus/KOOC-0/60. In this paper, 17 in Copernicus' 27 observation records is translated, Galileo's sunspot phenomenon is introduced, and some materials in Kepler's book On the Motion of Mars are translated ... Tycho's solar system structure system is described in 1/3, and the calculation method is based on Copernicus' and Kepler's modern western geometric methods. The almanac of Chongzhen quoted a large number of chapters and charts in the Theory of the Operation of Celestial Bodies, and regarded Copernicus as one of the four great astronomers in European history.

After the Tycho system was adopted, the almanac of Chongzhen was quickly accepted by the astronomical circles in China at that time. For example, in the late Ming Dynasty, the Earl of Suzhou wrote "The heavens move, urge and move" to explain. The calendar of Chongzhen is divided into five basic items: original method, method number, method calculation, instrument and communication.

When Xu Guangqi presided over the calendar reform, he put forward a set of methods to develop astronomy. He said: "If you want to do one thing tomorrow, you can only have profound ethics, be clear about the figures, carefully select people, judge the equipment, test it at any time, and catch up with the sky. ..... In addition, there is no other way. " In Xu Guangqi's view, the revision of Chongzhen almanac is not only for the revision of almanac. He said: the completion of the calendar requires a lot of preparation, one meaning and one method, and a profound explanation of why, from the source, because branches to roots can be the root of everything. This book will be turned over several times and will be read for several years. Since the meaning of the law is clear, then clear people can legislate and spread it to others. Hundreds of years later, they will see the violation and explain the reasons, so they will amend the constitution. This so-called method of today can be better than later generations, and later generations will overcome today. The almanac of Chongzhen was written according to this goal. As a part of the basic theory, it is used to introduce the basic astronomical theory, discuss the geometric model of celestial motion and its establishment, and rank this part at the top of the "fifth order". Fayuan occupies the core part, with more than 40 volumes, accounting for 1/3 of Chongzhen almanac. This is unique in the revision of China's calendar.

In the Calendar of Chongzhen, the big survey, the whole meaning survey, the secant circle eight-line table, the eight-line table, the north-south high arc table and the high arc table are introduced into the plane and sphere, and two calculation tools are introduced into the solution of proportion and calculation.

The achievement of Chongzhen almanac was the most advanced in the world at that time. The almanac of Chongzhen not only represents the academic achievement of "Western learning spreading to the east", but also represents China's acceptance of western astronomy. What is commendable is that the scientists in Ming Dynasty critically absorbed the knowledge of western science and technology, and the government provided a good environment for scientific research.

The revision of "Chongzhen Almanac" was completed in 1634, when Xu Guangqi was the "University of Dongge" and "University of Wenyuan". Chongzhen became a cabinet college student in five years and was deeply trusted by Chongzhen. He was ill, but Chongzhen refused to let him go home, so that he died in the office. "Emperor Chongzhen was deeply saddened by the death of Xu Guangqi. I heard that he was in a funeral, and one day he dropped out of school and gave him "Xiao Bao" and "Wen Ding" posthumously. He also sent staff to send funeral supplies and money, and also sent Li Kang, the minister of rites, to preside over the funeral ceremony and sent people to escort the funeral back to Shanghai. " Express his condolences. 1633 Galileo, known as one of the founders of modern science, was sentenced to life imprisonment by the Holy See, and his later years were extremely miserable. It can be said that the support of the Ming government in China for scientific research, especially for mathematics and astronomy, surpassed that of Europe.

5. Royal Technology

In the Ming Dynasty, not only the literati were very interested in science and research results, but also the imperial court actively supported scientific research, and even the rulers themselves were very interested in science and made great contributions. In addition to the most obvious examples of Xu Guangqi, Li Tianjing and Li Zhizao, let's take a look at others.

Zhu Xi (about 136 1 ~ 1425) is the fifth son of Zhu Yuanzhang, Judy's brother in Ming Taizu, and also his mare queen. He used to be the king of Wu and later the king of Zhou. The scientific and technological works compiled by Zhu Yun include Life-saving Record, Pocket Recipe, Puji Recipe and Disaster Relief Herbs.

Zhu Zaiyu (1536 ~1611year) is the grandson of Zhu Yuanzhang IX, the grandson of Injong VI, and the royal family of Zheng Fan. He was a famous lawyer, historian and mathematician in Ming Dynasty. He created a lot of music and mathematics works in his life. His father, Zhu Houan, was proficient in temperament, which greatly influenced and inspired Zhu Zaiyu. Zhu Zaiyu made a great contribution to science. He was a creative scholar in China feudal society, and also a superstar in the field of science and art in Ming Dynasty. Scholars at home and abroad revere him as "a saint of the Oriental Renaissance". Zhu Zaiyu and Guo Moruo are listed as "world historical and cultural celebrities" together.

Yu, a former minister of the Ministry of War during Chongzhen, was one of the scholars who liked western learning in the late Ming Dynasty. He wrote a book "Gezhicao", which is characterized by: "He not only made scientific research and records on individual natural phenomena, but more importantly, he deliberately sought universal principles and theorems from these individual studies. Therefore, there are many so-called "constant arguments" and "speeches" in his works. For example, Volume 1 has a' principle constant theory' and a' principle statement'. " Xiong is the son of his son and a famous western scholar, and he has written The Theory of Hanging Images, Di Wei and Chinese Language. Xiong Ming's experience had a great influence on Fang Yizhi, a great thinker in the late Ming Dynasty. Fang Yizhi's interest in natural science and western learning is related to Xiong Ming's enlightenment.

Matteo Ricci died in Beijing on 16 10 (thirty-eight years of Wanli) at the age of 59. He had more than 200 followers before his death. It is a custom for foreigners to be buried in Macao after death. However, in order to commemorate Matteo Ricci, China people played music in the imperial court, applied for land grant and were buried in Beijing. Ming Shenzong made an exception and was allowed to take part in the competition. He personally gave a burial sacrifice fee to Erligou Buddhist Temple in the western suburbs of Beijing, with 38 houses and 20 mu of foundation. This is just a funeral, and the tombstone was erected by Wang Yinglin, the magistrate of Shuntian. When buried in October this year, all the officials of the civil and military departments attended the funeral, which was very solemn and grand. Italian Jesuit missionaries once recorded that "from time to time, officials said to Prime Minister Ye Wenzhong (cited note: Ye Gao Xiang in Cabinet Record),' Guests from afar have never been buried, how can they compare with other scholars?' Wen Zhonggong said,' When I meet an ancient guest, is his moral knowledge inferior to that of his son? If nothing else, it is its translation of Geometry, that is, it should be given a burial place. ""It can be seen that the ruling class of the Ming Dynasty attached importance to science and had an extraordinary mind. The development of science and technology in Qing dynasty is proud. The 90-volume Golden Mirror of Medical Records compiled by the government during the Qianlong period collected many new cheats and experience prescriptions, and made many textual researches on Synopsis of the Golden Chamber and Treatise on Febrile Diseases, which is an important work to introduce the clinical experience of traditional Chinese medicine. Wang Qingren, a famous doctor in the Qing Dynasty, made outstanding achievements in medicine, and wrote a book "Medical Forest Errors". He emphasized the importance of anatomical knowledge to medical treatment and questioned the records of zang-fu organs in ancient books. Through the study of autopsy, he made 25 kinds of "visceral correction maps", corrected some mistakes of predecessors and made beneficial contributions to the development of anatomy in the motherland.

Wang Xichan, a native of Yin Ruins, nicknamed Xiao 'an, was born in Wujiang, Suzhou. He is the author of more than a dozen astronomical works, such as Xiao An Xin Fa and Wu Xing Shi. He is proficient in Chinese and western calendars, and can explain the reasons for the differences between them and examine their gains and losses. He affirmed the advanced points of the western calendar, but also pointed out many shortcomings and mistakes. He put forward pertinent opinions on the algorithm of solar eclipse, the application of some astronomical data, the length of tropic year and the precession constant. Because he can combine Chinese and foreign experiences, conduct independent and creative research, he has made great achievements and promoted the development of Chinese calendar science.

Mei Wending was born in Xuancheng, with the word "Nine" and the nickname "Buan". He devoted his whole life to sorting out and expounding the ancient calendar science in China, and also studied and introduced western science. Among them, there are 86 books on astronomy, calendar and mathematics, which have made great contributions to the collation of Chinese and foreign scientific knowledge. His General Examination of Ancient and Modern Calendars is the first history book in China. His magnum opus General Theory of Chinese and Western Mathematics summed up almost all the mathematical knowledge in the world at that time and reached the highest level of mathematical research in China at that time. In the "Equation Theory" part of the book, he expounded the originality of China's ancient equations, pointing out that this algorithm is not available in the West; He also carried forward the achievements of China's ancient algorithm in Pythagorean metrology and ancient preservation with nine numbers. In addition, in the sections of "block measurement" and "geometric correction", he introduced the western sphericity and discussed and developed the western solid geometry. In the preparation, calculation and proportional number solution, the western logarithm and Galileo's proportional gauge are explained and introduced.

Minggatu is a famous Mongolian calendar mathematician. When he was in Qianlong, he was a Qin Tianjian. At that time, three analytic formulas about trigonometric functions were introduced from Europe, namely, three methods of tangent circle (circle diameter for circumference, sine for solitary back, and positive vector for chord back), but there were only formulas, but there was no proof method of the formulas. China scholars have been trying to know what they know for a long time, but they don't know why. This situation brought some difficulties to mathematicians at that time to master and apply this knowledge. After more than 30 years' in-depth research, Mingatou wrote the four-volume Secant Circle Density Method, which not only proved three formulas with the Secant Circle Connection Proportion Method, but also created a series of new formulas for finding chord through arc back, arc back through chord and arc back through normal vector. This is Mingatou's outstanding contribution to mathematics. He was the first person in China to study pi by analytical method. What is particularly worth mentioning is geographical mapping. During the Kangxi period, we organized manpower to carry out national geodesy. After more than 30 years of planning and mapping, we have made a "panorama of the Forbidden City". This map is "not only the best of all the maps in Asia at that time, but also better and more accurate than all the maps in Europe at that time" (The History of Science and Technology of Needham China, Volume V). During the Qianlong period, Minggatu and others were sent to Xinjiang and other places for surveying and mapping twice. Finally, according to the panorama of the Forbidden City and the new surveying and mapping data, the panorama of the Forbidden City in Ganlong was made. In this map, the Xinjiang region of the Qing Empire is drawn in detail for the first time. These two pictures are still of great reference value. The Map of the Territory of Qing Dynasty, drawn in the 15th year of Jiaxuye (1820), basically reflected the territory of China at that time. However, due to the prohibition of religion in Yongzheng period and the later closed-door policy, advanced western science could not be introduced into China, and the opportunity to learn from each other was lost. In addition, the Qing Dynasty continued the bad habits of imperial examination, literary inquisition and stereotyped writing in Ming Dynasty, which made China science gradually lost. After the Opium War, western science was introduced into China in large quantities. From the Westernization Movement, the Reform Movement of 1898 to the Revolution of 1911, China tried to absorb the scientific achievements of the West. After the establishment of China Science Society and other non-governmental academic groups in the early years of the Republic of China, China's science and technology began to integrate with the development of world science and technology more systematically. The appearance of Academia Sinica in 1928 and the establishment of China Academy of Sciences in 1949 have enabled the development of scientific and technological research in China to receive financial support from the government.

The gun manufacturing, shipbuilding, steam technology and airplane technology in the Republic of China were all technical attempts made by overseas students in China.

China successfully exploded China's first atomic bomb in June 1964+00; 1June, 967, the first hydrogen bomb exploded successfully. 1999165438+10/At 6: 30 on October 20th, China's new Long March carrier rocket "Shenzhou-1" successfully landed in the central part of Inner Mongolia Autonomous Region, the next day 15: 08+0, June 6th, 2003+/kloc- In 20071October 24th 18: 05 (UTC+8: 00), the Chang 'e-1 probe was successfully launched from xichang satellite launch center by the Long March 3A carrier rocket. September 25, 2008: 2 1: 10: 04.988 milliseconds Shenzhou VII was launched by the Long March II F rocket from the manned space launch site of Jiuquan Satellite Launch Center in China. The Long March II F carrier rocket was launched on September 25th, 2008 at 2 1, 10, 4 seconds and 988 milliseconds (UTC+8, the same below).

Ignition 120 seconds, the rocket throws away the booster and escape tower; The first and second stages of the rocket are separated in 159 seconds; The fairing is separated at the 200th second; The third stage rocket was shut down in the 500th second;

In the 583rd second, the spacecraft was separated from the rocket; Then the spacecraft entered the scheduled orbit normally, and the Shenzhou VII spacecraft was successfully launched.

At 04:03 on September 27th, the orbit change control program was started, and the orbit change was completed at 04:04. The spacecraft entered orbit, circled the earth for more than 5 times, and the astronauts left the cabin.

16:35 astronaut Zhai Zhigang opened the hatch and started the extravehicular activity. Zhai Zhigang first poked his head out, waved to the default closed-circuit camera outside the cabin, and then walked out of the cabin. Liu Boming also poked his head out of the hangar and handed Zhai Zhigang a small five-star red flag. Zhai Zhigang took the five-star red flag and waved it at the camera for a while. Zhai Zhigang then retrieved the solid lubrication experimental samples loaded outside the cabin. 16:58 astronauts successfully completed the extravehicular activity and returned to the orbital module. The track door is closed.

The spacecraft landed successfully at the main landing site of Siziwangqi, Inner Mongolia, China on September 28th, 2008 17: 37. Shenzhou VII spacecraft flew for 2 days, 20 hours and 27 minutes.