It should be said that The Doctrine of the Mean is the most difficult of the four books, and its 33 chapters are very wonderful. The combination of history and theory is criss-crossed. By exploring the dimension of individual physical and mental cultivation, the external things are combined with the way of heaven and earth, which shows the speculative and practical nature of China's philosophy. In this regard, Zhu concluded: "His book started with a principle, scattered into everything in the middle, and finally merged into a principle. If you let it go, it's six rivers. If you roll, it's hidden in a secret. It tastes endless, and it's all practical. If you are a good reader, if you play with it, you will use it all your life, if you can't finish it. " [3] Ye Xiushan believes: "Take the doctrine of the mean as the way, proceed from yourself (physically and mentally), be sincere to yourself, and stick to your own nature, and the nature of this fate has already had a relationship with the other. Without the other, your sex will become empty, and neutralization means having the other. I got it from someone else, so I have a problem in it. Medium, medium and medium, there is also the problem of medium (de-sounding) leakage (de-sounding). " [4] These views are undoubtedly quite reasonable.
The doctrine of the mean and other important categories in China's ideological history have formed a discourse system, such as "sticking to the middle", "5", "a trip to China", "6", "China Festival", "7", "serving China", "8" and "neutralization", which have formed a whole set of China philosophical discourses and influenced the individual cultivation of China intellectuals and the continuation of China's cultural harmony spirit. It can be said that the golden mean is a Confucian philosophy based on people, not a religious belief based on God. The doctrine of the mean originates from the Book of Changes, which emphasizes the people-oriented doctrine of the mean in the development and education of heaven and earth-"holding both ends and serving the people". The doctrine of the mean in a broad sense attaches importance to the diversity and inclusiveness of all things, and emphasizes that in the unity of opposites, it follows the laws of all things in heaven and earth, and obtains the continuation of life and the expansion of culture in righteousness, balance, order, appropriateness and harmony. [10] Throughout the book The Doctrine of the Mean, its important words in the following aspects represent the spirit, historical penetration and contemporary significance of the doctrine of the Mean.
First, "Destiny is nature, frankness is Tao, and cultivation is teaching". The golden mean begins with sex, life, Taoism, religion and harmony. From the nature of heaven and earth to human education, it can be seen that the golden mean will eventually be implemented in human education. People's teaching is to be cautious and independent, which will lead to neutrality. [1 1] Once neutralized, "Heaven's position is not good, everything in the world will naturally take its place and everything will flourish." This order, which develops according to nature, is the ancient order and the ideological basis of today's "sustainable development" and "ecological culture" order.
Second, "the gentleman is moderate, and the villain is against the mean." A gentleman is moderate and impartial, sticks to his own ideas, but acts moderately. "Little people oppose the doctrine of the mean", but little people are overbearing, extreme, violent and extreme, and what they do is often destructive. In the constructive, equal and fair cultural dialogue advocated by the world today, it is not difficult to see the spirit of moderation, tolerance and balance.
Third, "all countries in the world can be equal, and you can resign, you can follow the white blade, and you can't do the middle." It is difficult to govern the country well, reject it and die generously, but compared with the golden mean, it is not the hardest. People can lift 100 Jin at a time, but it is difficult to lift a cup horizontally for half a day. It can be seen that impartial persistence is the most difficult, and the difficulty lies in daily persistence, lifelong persistence and eternal persistence.
Fourth, "a gentleman is always happy." Gentlemen "don't blame the world, don't blame others." A gentleman starts by asking himself, and he doesn't blame other people's shortcomings and mistakes, so he knows that he is making progress every day, and he feels great happiness in life and spiritual growth in a difficult life.
Fifth, a gentleman does not refuse trivial matters, so he "feels inferior if he goes far" and "feels inferior if he climbs high". Tiny happens to be the most important process for people to get on the cloud. Without it, people will stay where they are. Moreover, Shuang Yutu in the Book of Changes has explained that the tiny power was born at the most powerful moment of the opposite, and the tiny golden mean balance will inevitably have a broad future realm.
Sixth, gentlemen attach importance to the unity of knowledge and action. "erudite, inquisitive, thoughtful and discerning", plus "faithfulness". The previous study, questioning, thinking and discrimination all belong to the theory of knowledge, and only practice can transform knowledge into practice.
Seventh, a gentleman gains a new spiritual dimension through the complementarity of opposites. "A gentleman respects morality and seeks knowledge, broad and subtle, extremely clear and moderate. Review the old and know the new, and be sincere and respectful. " A gentleman not only carries forward his own virtue from the inside, but also carries forward his spirit of seeking knowledge and seeking Tao from the outside; Not only has he done the most extensive and noble questioning, but he has also done the most detailed exploration; Such talents can be called gentlemen. They have not only reached the highest understanding of speculation, but also reached the extremely moderate way of treating people.
Eighth, a gentleman is not stupid and loyal. "State-owned, its words are enough; There is no way for the country, and silence is enough. " A gentleman saves himself and lets his knowledge be passed down from generation to generation for the benefit of future generations and generations.
Ninth, a gentleman keeps pace with the times and does not stick to the rules. Because Confucius said that in the Xia, Shang and Zhou dynasties, "I followed the week" and "I followed the week" were not retro, but were done according to the norms and principles of the times.
Tenth, insist on obtaining "sincerity", because "gentleman's sincerity" can be invincible and educate the world.
The doctrine of the mean emphasizes governing all countries with the doctrine of the mean in order to achieve peace and harmony. The main principles of the golden mean are self-discipline, loyalty, tolerance and sincerity. Although there are many pedantic words, we should also see that it is quite reasonable to strip away the limitations of these words and systems. In other words, through the clouds of history, we can still feel the depth of cultural spirit.
A thorough study of the historical fate of Confucianism in China is undoubtedly of great significance for understanding the position of the golden mean in the history of China's thought. Confucianism has been circulating for more than 2,500 years, which is a summary phenomenon worthy of in-depth study in the cultural history of China. From the perspective of the position of The Doctrine of the Mean in the history of China's thought, in the context of the development of Confucianism, it is necessary to examine the difficulties and problems of Confucianism, including The Doctrine of the Mean, in history and reality;
Confucianism revises and changes its pedigree in the development of the times. As soon as Confucianism was born, it changed from a professional group of mutual courtesy to an academic education group, which created a privatization situation in the academic environment. Confucius tried his best to promote Confucianism and was in a difficult situation-he traveled all over the world and was hungry for Cai Chen for thirteen years, but Confucius was really reused politically and had little chance to implement his theory. Confucianism is divided into eight behind Confucius.
During the Warring States Period, Xunzi did not regard Confucianism as monolithic. On the contrary, he divided "Confucians" into four categories according to their characters: laity, vulgar Confucianism, elegant Confucianism and great Confucianism. It is believed that: "If people use laymen, the country will die; If you use vulgar Confucianism, the country will survive; With the way of elegance, the national security is a thousand times; If you use a great scholar, it will take a long time. For the next three years, the world was one, and the princes were ministers. If you use a country of thousands of riders, you will make mistakes and make mistakes. " [12] This distinction transcends the dichotomy between Confucius and the golden mean, and divides Confucianism into four categories from low to high.
The fact that Emperor Wu of the Han Dynasty "ousted a hundred schools of thought and respected Confucianism alone" does not mean that Confucianism will remain stable for a long time, and Confucianism has not always become the central ideology of China. In fact, the "exclusive" Confucianism deviates from the true nature of Confucius' Confucianism in both political opinions and theoretical forms. What's more, the exclusive admiration for Confucianism only largely determines that Confucianism has become the basis of official ruling ideology, and other schools have not been abolished.
In the third year of Ganlu (5 1 BC), Xuan Di, Emperor Wu of the Han Dynasty, called the Confucian Classics Society to discuss the similarities and differences of the Five Classics. Finally, Yi, Shangshu and Chunqiu of Xiahou were brought into the official academic system. Later, Emperor Han Yuan, who was a prince at that time, advised his father Xuan Di on the way of governing the country: "Your Majesty's punishment is too deep, so it is advisable to use Confucian scholars." Xuan Di, the Emperor of the Han Dynasty, immediately reprimanded: "The Han family has its own system, which is based on the hegemony of Taoism. How can it be pure moral education and Zhou political education? " Moreover, vulgar Confucianism is out of date, and it is dazzling in name and reality. I don't know what to keep and why to appoint it! [13] Sima Guang thinks: "Confucianism can be divided into gentlemen and villains. If you are a vulgar Confucian, you don't have enough sincerity to govern, but you can't use it to seek truth from Confucianism. ..... It's too much to say that kingly way is not feasible and Confucian scholars are not available! " [ 14]
Legalists were used in Qin dynasty, Confucianism was used in Han dynasty, and Buddhism entered the Central Plains from Wei, Jin and Tang dynasties, and Laozi and Zhuangzi were also valued. It was not until the Song and Ming Dynasties that the absolute position of Confucianism was truly established. However, it can't be ignored that only half of the country was in the Southern Song Dynasty. In the early Ming Dynasty, the sea was banned, and in the middle of the Ming Dynasty, the sea was completely closed, which made China seal the sea for 400 years. [15] When China lost an important historical opportunity to open to the world, Confucianism moved from the theology and philosophy of Confucianism to the decadence and disenchantment of Confucianism. [ 16]
In my opinion, since the birth of Confucianism, it has encountered a step-by-step dilemma at three levels:
First of all, Confucianism has failed as an official ideology. Whether as a general plan of governing the country or the so-called "half-part Analects of Confucius governing the world", it has suffered unprecedented impact with the entry of western modernity. Since then, the possibility of Confucianism as a national ideology has been lost, and in fact it is impossible to restore the glory of "exclusive respect for Confucianism". It can be said that the transformation from the interpretation system of Confucian Classics in Han and Tang Dynasties to the interpretation system of Confucian Classics in Song, Yuan, Ming and Qing Dynasties, accompanied by the rising status of The Doctrine of the Mean and The University, reflects the unprecedented concern for people's inner character in the history of China thought. From another perspective, Confucianism, as an ideology, has declined, and Confucianism, as a human philosophy, may glow with historical and humanistic charm. [ 17]
Second, Confucianism must give up its ideological demands in the process of just visible and self-cultivation. It is not difficult to see that intellectuals' pursuit of the spirit of "the world", no matter the nature of "destiny" in The Doctrine of the Mean, is a spontaneous way, and the way of training is teaching. Tao also, you can't leave it for a moment, you can leave it from the wrong way, or the so-called "university way, mingde way, people-friendly way, stop at the best way", all of which put forward high requirements for intellectuals to cultivate themselves and take responsibility for the world. True intellectuals will always adhere to this high standard. But I still ask with concern: Do contemporary intellectuals in China still have the spirit of "being the world's academic instrument"? Do you still have a "world" in mind? Do you still have a "tool" in your hand?
Thirdly, Confucianism, especially the doctrine of the mean, has been challenged by western "competition philosophy" and "jungle law", which makes it seem powerless in dealing with the advance and retreat in daily life. Confucianism, which adheres to the principles of generosity and moderation, has encountered a crisis in the modern society with fierce competition. [18] can be illustrated by a simple example: Kong Rong let pears reflect the Confucian virtues, but in contemporary society, "why did Kong Rong let pears" has become a problem. The global competitive education implemented by the western education system constitutes a criticism of "Kong Rong's concession to pears". For Americans, this law of the jungle society can't "yield" but "fight". In fact, today's educational globalization pursues the educational mode of "competing for pears" rather than the mode of "letting pears be cultivated".
Faced with the triple dilemma of contemporary Confucianism, I realize that Confucianism, as an official ideology, will gradually fade out of history, while Confucianism, as the second level of individual spiritual cultivation and the third level of caring about the just-visible and sincere spiritual and ecological balance, may have broader and greater international significance and the significance of reviving oriental culture. [ 19]
As far as its positive value is concerned, The Doctrine of the Mean carries forward Confucius' "loyalty and forgiveness" and "moral integrity" in universities, and insists on balancing self-desire, which is of great value to the spiritual ecology of society and the psychological harmony of people. When people practice the golden mean, they will achieve the state of being in their proper place, not complaining about others, being sincere, just and peaceful. In the process of insisting on sincerity and harmony, if contemporary people give up "self-attachment", it is possible to stimulate their goodness, respect the nature of all things in nature, participate in the cultivation of all things in heaven and earth, and find the real position of human beings in the universe.
In the predicament and evil consequences of modernity, the Doctrine of the Mean will resist the indulgence of emotional desires and the bias of rationalism with its unbiased and extreme thinking mode, adhere to the dialectical social and life views, analyze the weaknesses of human nature, and make human beings re-examine the reasonable factors in oriental thought, so as to avoid introducing human beings into "midnight of technology" and "development disaster" in misunderstanding of modernity. In this sense, revisiting the Doctrine of the Mean today is also to arouse the forgotten oriental ideological and cultural experience through memories and open up the possibility of facing a higher form of existence. [20] In my opinion, many important ideas and political opinions today are more or less related to the doctrine of the mean. Such as: cultivate one's self-cultivation to protect people, cultivate one's self-cultivation to protect the world, cultivate one's self-cultivation, exercise excessive restraint, be flexible, don't do to others what you don't want, cultivate one's self-cultivation, be prepared for danger in times of peace, overcome difficulties together, a well-off society, keep pace with the times, a harmonious world and mutual benefit.
As far as historical limitations are concerned, there are many inappropriate words, pedantic words and inappropriate sentences in The Doctrine of the Mean, which need to be sorted out and criticized. There is no doubt that the limitations of The Doctrine of the Mean are determined by the overall level of productivity development and rigid thinking at that time. From the perspective of ideological history, the doctrine of the mean overemphasizes neutrality and stability when dealing with contradictions, while ignoring the struggle and transformation of opposites. It failed to understand the self-denial and qualitative leap of things, and there were too many rulers and ministers from top to bottom, which caused some philosophical and political defects. However, I still believe that the rationality of the golden mean is greater than the historical limitations, and the wonderful and lofty ideas in the book still occupy the dominant position. The oriental wisdom, which is different from the west, is more attractive today and worth explaining and carrying forward.
I insist that in today's era of globalization, when westerners dominate the world with western ideas and want global homogenization, the East should make its own voice. [2 1] The East should clean up its spiritual heritage, so that the world can have both the legal spirit of the West and the moral education spirit of the East. [22] The future of mankind is not decided by the West itself, but should be discussed and promoted by wise and sincere people all over the world, east, west, north and south, so that human peace, world harmony and world peace can finally come.
Precautions:
[1] See Wang Yuechuan's Discovering the East, Beijing Library Press, 2003; Globalization and China, by Wang Yuechuan, Jinan: Shandong Friendship Publishing House, 2002.
[2] As far as the related works are concerned, there are many works in modern times. In my opinion, their essential choices are basically the same: Hu Shi's Outline of China's Philosophical History, Beijing: The Commercial Press 19 19 Edition; Leonard A. Lyle and Qian Kun Title: Loyalty and Courage; Or, center, public, publisher: London, new york (etc. ) Longmans Green Company, 1927. Liang Qichao's Academic History of China in Recent 300 Years, Shanghai: Shuzhi Bookstore,1929; Yang's History of China's Ancient Thoughts, Beijing: People's Publishing House,1954; Lu Zhenyu's History of China's Political Thought, Beijing: Sanlian Bookstore,1956; Zhang Dainian's Outline of China's Philosophy, Beijing: Commercial Press,1958; General History of China's Ideological History, edited by Hou Wailu, Beijing: People's Publishing House,1963; Ren China's Philosophy History, Beijing: People's Publishing House,1966; Wu Yi's Study on the Doctrine of the Mean, Huagang Book City, Taiwan Province Province (Taibei), 1974 edition; Translated by Song Tianzheng and revised by Yang Lianggong, Taiwan Province Commercial Press, 1977 edition; Chen Manming's Study on the Doctrine of the Mean, Taiwan Province Jinwen Publishing House,1980; Xiao Gongchuan's History of China's Political Thought, Taipei: Lianjing Publishing Company,1980; Zhang Qizhi's History of China Thought, Xi 'an: Northwest University Press,1980; Cai Shangsi's Thought System of Confucius, Shanghai: Shanghai People's Publishing House,1982; Shuye Tong's Study on the Thought of Seven Scholars in Pre-Qin Period, Jinan: Qilu Bookstore,1982; Luo Guang's Pre-Qin Chapter of China's Philosophical Thought History, Taiwan Province Student Publishing House, 1983 edition; Liu Zehua's History of Pre-Qin Political Thought, Tianjin: Nankai University Press,1984; Feng Youlan's Philosophy of China, Beijing: Peking University Publishing House,1985; Notes on Mencius' Doctrine of the Mean, edited by Kang Youwei and Lou Yulie, Beijing: Zhonghua Book Company 1987; Jin and Lu Shaogang, eds. The Collection of Zhouyi, Changchun: Jilin University Press,1989; Zhang Qizhi's History of Confucianism in China, Xi 'an: Shaanxi People's Publishing House,1990; Pre-Qin Confucianism by Qian Xun, Shenyang: Liaoning Education Press,1990; Translated by Xu Chao and He Baihua/The Doctrine of the Mean, published in The Complete Works of Confucius Culture, Jinan: Shandong Friendship Bookstore,1992; The Doctrine of the Mean, edited by Song, Zhao, Shun, Sun and Huang Shen, Shanghai: East China Normal University Press,1992; Yang Xiangkui, Zhou Zong Society and Civilization of Ritual System, Beijing: People's Publishing House,1992; Tan Yuquan's Study on the Doctrine of the Mean, Taiwan Province Jinwen Publishing House,1995; Selected Works of Zhao Lisheng and Zhao Lisheng History, Jinan: Shandong University Press,1996; Jin Zhu's Detailed Explanation of New Editions, Shenyang: Liaohai Publishing House,1998; Textual research on primitive Confucianism by Wu Longhui, Beijing: China Social Sciences Press,1996; Ge Zhu's World of Knowledge, Thought and Belief in China Seven Centuries ago —— The First Volume of the History of China Thought, Shanghai: Fudan University Press,1998; Liu Zhoutang's Study on Early Confucian Culture, Guilin: Guangxi Normal University Press,1998; Du Weiming and Duan Dezhi, Confucian religious view: a modern interpretation of the golden mean, Wuhan: Wuhan University Press,1999; Shen's Textual Research on the Rites and Music Civilization in Hangzhou: Hangzhou University Press,1999; Ritual Culture in China, Zou Changlin, Beijing: Social Science Literature Publishing House, 2000; Chen, Study on Confucian Doctrine of the Mean, Guilin: Guangxi Normal University Press, 2000; Research on Bamboo Slips of Chu Tomb in Guodian, Sixin Ding, Shanghai: Oriental Publishing House, 2000; David L. Hall and Roger T. Ames: Focusing on the Familiar: Translation and Philosophical Interpretation of Zhong Yong. Publisher: Honolulu: University of Hawaii Press, 200 1. The Doctrine of the Mean, Liu Zhu, Beijing: Beijing Language and Culture University Press, 200 1 Edition; Dong Genhong's General Theory of Confucian Philosophy of Neutrality, Jinan: Qilu Bookstore, 200 1 edition; Guo Yi's Bamboo Slips of Guodian and Academic Thought in Pre-Qin Dynasty, Shanghai: Shanghai Education Press, 200 1 Edition; Yang Zuhan's Interpretation of the Doctrine of the Mean, Taipei: Goose Lake Press, 2002; Jiang Guanghui, editor-in-chief, History of Confucian Classics in China, Beijing: China Social Sciences Press, 2003; Jiang Qing's Political Confucianism: The Turn, Characteristics and Development of Contemporary Confucianism, Beijing: Sanlian Bookstore, 2003; Chen Ming's Dimension of Confucianism, Beijing: Peking University Publishing House, 2004; Xu Ruzong's The Doctrine of the Mean, Hangzhou: Zhejiang Ancient Books Publishing House, 2004.
[3] Zhu Zhu's "Four Books and Chapters, The Doctrine of the Mean, Confucius said", edited by Wang, has 2 episodes of 700 kinds, Shanghai: Commercial Press, 1935 edition, the first 1 page.
[4] Ye Xiushan's "Try Reading the History of China's Philosophy", No.3, 2000. In addition, Zhang Qizhi also thought in his speech "The Cultural Significance of Buddhism": "Buddhism has Buddha nature, so what does Confucianism have? "Confucianism has a golden mean, and the Bank of China is righteous. These things are expressed in different languages and tell a truth, that is, sincerity, sincerity. Honest people know heaven, and sincere people know humanity. What is honesty? Run according to the laws of nature, people do things according to the rules, and can't do whatever they want. This is what I emphasize. People should be honest, self-esteem, self-confidence and self-love. People should not only love others, but also love everything.
[5] "Center" means impartiality. "The Analects of Confucius Yao Yue": "Allow yourself to be dumbfounded." ((Qing) Ruan Yuan proofreads the Thirteen Classics, p. 2535) Liu Baonan's justice: "Those who hold China are also used." ((Qing) Ruan Yuan collated the Notes to the Thirteen Classics, p. 2535) The Book of Rites, The Doctrine of the Mean: "Suppress evil and promote good, hold both ends and serve the people." (The Doctrine of the Mean, (Qing) Ruan Yuan proofreads Notes on Thirteen Classics, p. 1626) Zheng Xuan's note: "It's too late at both ends. Used by the people, both virtuous and not virtuous. " (The Book of Rites, The Doctrine of the Mean, (Qing) Ruan Yuan's Notes on Thirteen Classics, p. 1626)
[6] "BOC" is a person whose behavior conforms to the golden mean. "The Analects of Confucius Lutz": "If you can't go to the Bank of China, you must be crazy!" (The Analects of Confucius Lutz, (Qing Dynasty) Ruan Yuan collated Notes on Thirteen Classics, p. 2508) Epitaph of Mr. Fang Shilu in Yao Nai in Qing Dynasty: "Mr. Wang is speechless and alone in the Bank of China."
[7] "Zhong" means observing the festival and keeping the righteousness, which is consistent with etiquette and justice. "Zhouyi Jane": "Xiang Yue: Big Jane, friends come, Mid-Autumn Festival is also." ((Qing) Ruan Yuan's "Notes on the Thirteen Classics" page 52) Kong Ying Da Shu: "China is not easy for its festival, so friends come, so it is also a festival in the clouds." ((Qing) Notes on Ruan Yuan's Collation of Thirteen Classics, p. 52) Biography of Yu Yanchuan in the Later Han Dynasty: "(General Fu) is extravagant and extravagant, and his clothes and utensils are more than modest." (Zhonghua Book Company, 1965 edition, p. 1 15 1 page) (Ming) Huang Wan's "Ming Dow" Volume 1: "There is no middle section in what you do, and it is also said."
[8] "China is useful" is useful. "Poetry Xiaoya Hundred Flowers" and "Hundred Flowers Kan Xi" Han Zhengxuan wrote: "Hundred flowers have been drowned in the wild, so it is called Kan, gentle and patient." (Han) On Salt and Iron: "The clothes of the ancients were not made in China, and the equipment was useless, so porridge was not available."
[9] "Neutrality" means independence. The Doctrine of the Mean: "Neutral but not biased, strong and correct." (The Book of Rites The Doctrine of the Mean, (Qing) Ruan Yuan's Notes on Thirteen Classics, p. 1626) Confucius commented: "China is independent, impartial, ambitious and upright." (The Book of Rites The Doctrine of the Mean, (Qing) Ruan Yuan's Notes on the Thirteen Classics, p. 1626) (Tang) Bai Juyi's Bamboo Tree: "The bamboo is straight and upright, and the gentleman thinks it is neutral when he sees its nature." (The Collection of Ancient and Modern Events and Documents, Volume 24, Sikuquanshu (Ming Dynasty), Embroidered Books Celebrating the Country's Prosperity: "Ber Ber is stubborn, brave and neutral, especially difficult." (Commentary on Sixty Songs, Changchun: Jilin People's 200 1 Edition, p. 274)
[10] Li Zonggui et al. Introduction to Chinese National Spirit, Guangzhou: Guangdong People's Publishing House, 2007.
[1 1] "Neutralization" has actually become the internal symbol of "the golden mean". Only by "neutralization" can everything in the world be full of vitality and in a just, peaceful and harmonious state. "Xunzi Wang Zhi": "Those who are fair have a balanced position; Neutralizer, the rope of listening. " Yang Shu's Note: "Neutralization is broad and fierce, and it is also moderate." (Integration of Scholars II, p. 96) (Tang) Quan Deyu's "Wind and Sanctuary Spring Linde Hall will have a hundred people watching new music": "Joy is the world, and harmony is the order."
[12] Xunzi Confucianism, The Scholars, Volume 2, pp. 79-80.
[13] History of Han Yuan Di, p. 277.
[14] (Song Dynasty), edited by Sima Guang, Purple Guangdong, (Yuan Dynasty) Beijing: Zhonghua Book Company, 1956, p. 88 1 page.
[15] A Comparison between China and the West in Five Hundred Years, edited by Hao Xiajun, Beijing: China Workers Publishing House, 1997.
[16] A Brief History of Western Empire by Anthony Pagden, Tianjin: Tianjin People's Publishing House, 2007.
[17] Cultural Spirit of China, edited by Zhou Daming and Qin Hongzeng, Guangzhou: Guangdong People's Publishing House, 2007.
[18] A Brief History of China Culture, Ji Yunhua Yang, Beijing: Beijing Publishing House, 2004.
[19] The Doctrine of the Mean was translated to the west more than 300 years ago, which has exerted a wide influence in the western world. 1667- 1669, the bilingual translation of The Doctrine of the Mean was completed, with the title Sinarum scientia politics-moralis and the translator's signature Yin Duoze. 1687, Bai Yingli, a Belgian Jesuit, was edited and published in Confucius Poetics Philosophy. This book has been translated into Daxue, The Doctrine of the Mean and The Analects of Confucius, and the Chinese title is Four Books in Western Languages.
[20] Ginseng (French) Jacques Bross: Discovering China, Jinan: Shandong Pictorial Publishing House, 2002.
[2 1] See Said's Orientalism, Beijing: Sanlian Bookstore, 1999.
[22] Comparison of Chinese and Western Cultures, edited by Xu, Beijing: Peking University Publishing House, 2004.