In addition, communication needs to learn information theory, cybernetics and system theory in natural science, so people call it marginal science, which means being at the crossroads of many disciplines. Theories of various social disciplines often become part of communication theory. But communication has its own theory, which is irreplaceable by other social sciences.
The focus and foothold of communication research is: how to establish a certain relationship between people through the role of communication.
Its research scope mainly includes interpersonal communication and mass communication. Among them, mass communication is the mainstay.
Biography is actually human science: studying the relationship between people, people and other groups, organizations and society; Study how people are influenced and how people interact with each other; Learn how to report news, how to receive news and information, how to be taught, how to entertain and amuse yourself. First, understand how people build relationships. The construction of communication research system can first find the basis and coordinates from its relationship with other related disciplines. Because its construction can not be separated from the nurturing and urging of many related disciplines.
1, Communication and Sociology
In the west, people once regarded communication as a branch of sociology. As we know, sociology takes social organization, social behavior, social problems, etc. as the research object, with a wide range; Communication focuses on communication process, communication behavior, communication consciousness and communication relationship, and the research objects are relatively concentrated. Sociology was born before, and communication was born after. In the process of its formation, communication studies absorbed and borrowed some knowledge and methods from sociology (such as investigation methods and statistical methods), and also absorbed nutrients from many other emerging disciplines. Now sociology and other disciplines have begun to enrich their research content with the results of communication. This kind of overlapping and overlapping of research scope and mutual reference of research results is completely normal and should be done, but after all, it is an independent discipline with its own characteristics.
2. Communication and Psychology
Psychology has helped in the formation of communication. Psychology, as a study of the law of psychological activities, enriches and enriches the content of communication by excavating the internal motivation and emotional factors of communication phenomena, so that communication, which emphasizes macro-research and process research, can learn from micro-research and psychological research and be more dynamic. As one of the most humanized and humanized social activities, communication also adds new research content and discourse space for psychological research. People also want to know the psychological phenomena and activities of communicators, gatekeepers, intermediaries and audiences in communication activities, which also makes psychological research more realistic and practical. The similarity between the two lies in the communication psychology.
3. Communication and Anthropology
Communication and anthropology are both "science about human beings", aiming at describing and explaining human beings, a special natural and social phenomenon that spans the whole earth and runs through the whole history. The theme of anthropology is to study all aspects of human body and culture, and the theme of communication is the basic medium to study human communication behavior and cultural transmission from generation to generation. In the past, people paid too much attention to the differences between the two disciplines and paid little attention to their interaction and complementarity. Communication is the privilege and symbol of human beings, the cultural carrier and "social cement", and the booster of human civilization and social progress. The theories of linguistic school, cultural school and communication school in anthropology can enlighten communication scholars, while the symbolic theory, reception theory and functional theory in communication can also open the eyes of anthropologists. In a word, we should not only understand the difference between communication and anthropology, but also try to find the intersection of them, so as to scientifically explain and reveal the phenomena and laws of human communication.
4. Communication and publicity
There is a certain "blood relationship" between communication and propaganda. Because a large part of the early communication research was propaganda research. However, the difference between the two is also obvious and cannot be confused. Communication studies take all information dissemination phenomena in human society as its research object, which naturally includes propaganda phenomena; Propaganda only takes persuasive and conceptual communication as its research object. Communication can reveal the essence and law of general information dissemination from a higher level and a wider perspective, so as to guide all communication activities including propaganda activities more correctly; However, propaganda can only analyze the propaganda phenomenon from its own angle and level, reveal the law of propaganda, and then guide its own communication activities. It can only deepen and enrich the content of communication in some aspects, and cannot be simply used to guide general communication activities. Communication, which came from behind, became the "commander-in-chief" of all branches of communication, and propaganda theory is only one branch of communication.
5. Communication and news
Communication and journalism had a very close interaction in the evolution process, and journalism did promote the birth of communication, but they cannot be equated. It is generally believed that journalism is the product of newspaper news era, and newspaper news focuses on business research or "technology" research; Communication is the product of the era of electronic news, focusing on theoretical research or "learning" research. Journalism is based on the ancient research of "reporting", emphasizing micro-research, local research and one-way research; Communication is based on the knowledge of emerging disciplines, focusing on macro-research, overall research and two-way research. The research object of journalism is news information phenomenon; The research object of communication is the phenomenon of communication activities. Journalism is a specialized scientific research, which can provide materials and enrich the content of communication. Communication is a broad scientific research, which plays a normative and guiding role in the contents and methods of journalism research. Others think that journalism is a professional study and communication is a social study. In short, both have their own characteristics.
6. Communication and history
As a book to study and clarify the history of the development of human society, it can help communication study the past communication activities, explore the sequence and historical factors of communication phenomena, reveal the historical process and basic laws of media reform, and make communication "learn from history" and communicators "learn from history" to gain historical knowledge, historical wisdom and historical experience, thus improving the communication effect. As a communication science aimed at pursuing and promoting human communication wisdom, it can also show historians the role of "social cement" and "interpersonal lubrication" in the development of human society, as well as its leading role in political, religious, educational, literary and artistic historical activities, and then in "viewing history with theory", it will be found that communication is not only a building material of human nature, but also a building material of history; All human history related to spiritual activities or spiritual culture is actually a history of communication. History is a static and introverted learning, which serves the reality by paying attention to and analyzing the historical facts that have passed away. Communication is a dynamic and extroverted research, which serves the reality by paying attention to and analyzing the phenomenon of communication activities that are taking place.
In addition, communication often uses the knowledge of semiotics, semantics, informatics, receptionism and other related disciplines or the research results of similar disciplines to continuously enrich and improve its research content and system.
It can be seen that around communication, there are many disciplines, especially emerging disciplines, which support it, enrich it and continuously deliver fresh nutrients to it. This has created an eclectic and all-round development condition for communication science, and also provided an important frame of reference for communication science to determine the object, build the system and make clear the coordinates. Communication was born in the United States. American scholars have explored the theory of communication from different angles and put forward various communication modes, such as those expressed by words, figures and mathematical formulas. Communication scientists use different models to explain the mechanism and essence of information communication, prompt the process and effect of communication, and predict the trend and structure of future communication. It is generally believed that communication has five founders:
1, HaroldDwightLasswell and lasswell (1902-1980) are one of the founders of modern American politics. The famous communication 5w model is put forward.
2. Kurt Lei Wen, Lu Yin (1890- 1947), a German Jew. The concept of "gatekeeper" in information dissemination is put forward.
3.CarlHovland, Hovland (1921-1961), professor of experimental psychology at Yale University. The introduction of psychological experimental methods into the field of communication reveals the conditions and complexity of the formation of communication effects.
4. Erfu Bao. Lazarsfeld, Lazarsfeld (1901-1976), an Austrian Jew. Rogers pointed out that lazarsfeld led communication to the direction of empirical research more than anyone else.
5. Shi Lamu (1907- 1988), an American, established the first communication research institute in the world and edited the first batch of German communication textbooks. It has opened up several new research fields, such as the influence of television on children. He is regarded as a master.
It originated in the United States because in the first half of the 20th century, Eurasia suffered two world wars in succession, and the United States became a haven for many scientists because of its unique geographical advantages. And because the United States itself has not been destroyed, the invention and application of technology have always been in a leading position. For example, the opening of 1920 Pittsburgh Radio and Television Station, the establishment of 1926 NBC and so on.
From the social situation, there is a tradition of attaching great importance to mass media in American political and social life. In the political mechanism, mass media is one of the forces to balance the legislature and government agencies. The newspaper was once called the second Congress.
From the academic tradition, American pragmatism philosophy prevails, and academic research places special emphasis on solving practical problems. A lot of practical information is used by people, which facilitates people's life, work and social operation. However, there are also a lot of commercial sales, political propaganda, deception, pornography, violence and other cultural rubbish. These problems or potential problems have become a subject that American academic circles must face and study.
All the above conditions determine that communication originated in the United States.
After the advent of communication in the United States, it soon spread to Western Europe and Japan. British communication has developed vigorously since the 1960s, and its methodology can be divided into four schools: the social school headed by mcguire; Social psychological card represented by Hololoren; Political and economic cards represented by Cheeseman and Garnham; Functionalism school represented by TV Research Center of Leeds University. Communication studies in Japan began after the Second World War. One is to follow the theoretical system of foreign countries, mainly the United States, and focus on the development of social participation theory that emphasizes the audience's right to directly participate in the communication process; Second, practice takes precedence over theory. Since the 1960s, the Soviet Union began to attach importance to the study of communication theory. Soviet scholars put forward their own communication modes based on their own research, among which Firsoff and Aleksev are the most famous.
It should be noted that the research of western communication scholars has obvious limitations. For example, they inappropriately put communication in the first important position of human beings, thus rejecting the main symbol of human productivity; They attributed the occurrence and development of communication behavior to human instinct and the progress of science and technology respectively, but did not relate it to social production mode. When studying the social control of communication, it is often impossible to fully reveal the profound contradictions within society. The composition of a subject includes historical theory and application. Communication is an interdisciplinary subject developed from the United States in the 1920s and 1930s, with the information dissemination activities of human society as the main research object. Influenced by the globalization of information communication, communication has become one of the fastest developing disciplines in the world. The author selected 10 classic works highly praised by academic circles from a large number of original English works of communication in foreign libraries, and made a comprehensive interpretation of the previous research results, thus recommending them to domestic readers.
Lippmann is one of the most influential scholars in the history of communication, and enjoys a high reputation in propaganda analysis and public opinion research. The most famous political columnist in the world created an early idea called agenda setting in his book Public Opinion (1922). This book is regarded as a basic work in the field of communication.
As a classic of communication, this book gives a panoramic description of public opinion for the first time, so that readers can appreciate the internal and external relations of public opinion in detail. Since the publication of 1922, this book has been translated into dozens of languages in the past decades and still maintains an authoritative position in this field.
The enduring mystery of Lipman's Theory of Public Opinion lies in that it effectively sorts out a series of unavoidable problems in public opinion research, such as where public opinion comes from and how to form it. What kind of results can it cause? Who is the public and what kind of public? What does public opinion mean? Is it only spread among the masses or is it formed by the masses themselves? Yes or when will it become an independent force?
In modern society, public opinion is mainly regarded as a political phenomenon. It can be said that there have always been only two sources, namely, the open system of public opinion generation and circulation and the closed system of public opinion manufacturing and indoctrination. Although both of them will produce a public opinion process with similar complexity, the results are not the same. Lippmann's "Public Opinion" has made incisive and profound discussions on prejudice, interests, the formation of public will, democratic image and other issues, completed the first comprehensive combing of the phenomenon of public opinion communication in the history of journalism, and laid the foundation for future generations' research.
Lippmann noticed the great influence of mass communication on society a long time ago. Therefore, in his works such as Public Opinion and Freedom and News, he not only deeply analyzed the essence of news and its selection process, but also put forward two important concepts. One is "pseudo-environment"; The other is "stereotype". Lippmann believes that modern society is becoming more and more huge and complex. Due to the limited scope, energy and attention of practical activities, people can't keep in touch with the whole external environment and many things related to it. For things beyond one's own personal perception, people can only understand cognition through various news supply agencies. In this way, people's behavior is no longer a response to the objective environment and its changes, but a response to some kind of "mimetic environment" prompted by news organizations.
The so-called "mimicry environment" is not a "mirror image" reproduction of the real environment, but an environment that the media reminds people after selecting, processing and reorganizing symbolic events or information. However, because this kind of processing, selection and structuring activities are carried out in places that ordinary people can't see (inside the media), people usually don't realize this, but often regard the "mimetic environment" as the objective environment itself.
And "stereotype" refers to people's fixed and simplified thoughts and impressions about a particular thing, which are usually accompanied by value evaluation and feelings of likes and dislikes. Stereotype can provide a simple reference standard for people to understand things, but it also hinders the acceptance of new things. Individuals have their own stereotypes, and a society also has stereotypes widely accepted by its members, so it also plays a controlling role in society. Lippmann particularly emphasized the power of mass communication, believing that mass communication is not only the main creator of "mimicry environment", but also has a strong influence on the formation, maintenance and change of a social stereotype.
In addition, the research on agenda setting originated from Lippmann's public opinion. Although the term agenda setting is not used in the book, he expresses a basic view that the media creates symbolic imagination in our minds, which may be completely different from the "external" world we experience. He proved that mass media is the main link between events in the real world and our imagination of the event in our minds. The agenda-setting process describes how public opinion plays a role in democracy. Forty years later, Cohen continued to devote himself to the development of agenda setting. He pointed out that the media is not very successful in telling people what to think, but it is extremely effective in telling people what to think. Of course, the agenda was not named until 1972 mccombs and Xiao's articles were published in Public Opinion Quarterly. Lippmann, as one of the earliest scholars who discussed the macro-effects of mass communication, made great contributions to the emergence and development of this theory. His classic treatise "Public Opinion" is also enduring because of his incisive exposition of the above communication problems.
Parker's Immigration Newspaper and Its Control
The Department of Sociology of the University of Chicago is the first sociology department in the United States, and the Chicago School is the most influential school in the field of social sciences in the United States in the 20th century. Among the Chicago School, robert parker, who has the greatest influence on communication, is called "the scholar who initiated the study of mass communication".
Parker did not write many books in his life. People say that he would rather instruct others to write 10 books than spend time writing one himself. Apart from his doctoral thesis, Immigration Newspapers and Their Control published in 1922 is his only work. He made a series of influential reports and published a book introducing his students. However, his most influential book is Immigration Newspaper and Its Control, which is by far the most important textbook and reading material about early American communication.
Immigration Newspapers and Their Control is divided into four parts and eighteen chapters. The first part, "The Survival Soil of Immigrant Newspapers", is divided into four chapters to introduce the reasons for the existence of foreign newspapers, the European background of immigrant newspapers, the integration of immigrant newspapers and its enlightenment. The second part is "the situation of foreign newspapers", which is divided into five chapters to analyze advertisements, the development of local newspapers, metropolis daily, metropolis daily, war and class struggle. The third part is "The History of Immigrant Newspapers", which is divided into five chapters to introduce newspapers founded by early immigrants, newspapers founded by late immigrants, immigrants' reflection on their own immigration situation, the survival competition of newspapers and the results of survival of the fittest. The fourth part is "newspaper control", which is divided into four chapters to discuss the control lever, Hamelin's manipulation control, opponent propaganda and government intervention, and alliance control.
The publication of immigration newspapers and their control is due to a country's concern that immigrants in the United States may be unfaithful. Are thousands of German-Americans loyal to America or K. William? Will they spread propaganda or sabotage? Parker directed the research of immigrant foreign language newspapers and periodicals. He found that Yiddish, Polish, German and other newspapers mainly helped new immigrants understand how to survive in North America. Few newspapers encourage loyalty to the original motherland. American foreign language newspapers and periodicals have gradually formed their own roles by helping immigrant readers integrate into American culture.
In the United States, Parker is the first person to study the relationship between ethnic minorities and the media. 19 At the end of the 20th century, a large number of new immigrants came to the United States. How to assimilate these new immigrants was a common concern of mainstream American society at that time. At the same time, American society also excludes new immigrants. Parker went deep into ethnic minority communities. After investigating dozens of foreign newspapers and periodicals, he published the monograph "Immigration Newspapers and Their Control" in 1922, opposing the suppression or control of these newspapers and periodicals. He emphasized that their role helps to maintain ethnic culture, let readers contact metropolis life through the language of their hometown, and let immigrants smoothly integrate into American society. Parker pays attention to empirical analysis and takes solving social problems as his main research direction. He investigated the slums of Chicago and the serious crime problem at that time. Parker's research contents and methods had a great influence on later scholars who studied media from the perspective of sociology in Europe, America and Japan.
In "Immigration Newspapers and Their Control", Parker mentioned the topic that communication has been studying so far: How does media content affect public opinions? How is the mass media influenced by public opinion? Can mass media bring about social change? What is the relationship between interpersonal communication and mass communication? Its definition of communication is similar to Shannon's later information theory.
Lazarsfeld people's choice
Paul F Lazarsfeld has an important ideological influence on the formation of modern communication research, and is the pioneer of communication effect research. From 1930, the first research on the communication effect of broadcast audience in Vienna, to 1937, the "broadcast research project" in the United States and 1940, the research on the presidential election in the United States, he made causal inferences that affected personal behavior through the analytical use of sampling surveys. The People's Choice written by lazarsfeld and his assistant is called "one of the most complicated surveys in the history of social science", and it is also a classic work on the study of communication effect.
"People's Choice" takes the American presidential election of 1940 as an analysis case, trying to explain how voters make their voting choices under the influence of mass media and interpersonal relationships.
The inducement that prompted lazarsfeld and others to study public behavior in the presidential election was World War II. The war machine directly promoted the development of many humanities and social sciences in the United States, including communication: sociologists were ordered to study the morale of soldiers in order to make the mental outlook of the whole army more conducive to combat; Social psychologists were ordered to study the effectiveness of political propaganda in order to make government instructions more acceptable to the public; Anthropologists who are well versed in the cultures of other countries in the world are responsible for providing suggestions to the government to reduce the friction caused by the US government in dealing with countries such as Japan and South Korea. The success of these scholars in their respective fields has brought high reputation and more and more extensive research fields to humanities and social sciences. Various emerging research fields based on social needs also urge humanities and social sciences to get rid of pure speculative research methods and replace them with empirical research methods, because each research result is expected to explain urgent social problems or serve as the basis for the government to formulate policies. The People's Choice and the Spread of Positivism were born in this academic atmosphere.
The contribution of Man's Choice to the academic thought of communication is mainly reflected in two aspects. One is the limited effect theory of mass communication, and the other is the formation of the views of "secondary communication" and "opinion leader"
Early propaganda theorists supported powerful mass media, but later communication scholars found no evidence of such powerful influence when studying the changes of media in election behavior, consumption decision-making and other types of behavior. The main scholar who began to doubt the powerful theory of mass media effect was lazarsfeld, and it was his research on Yili County that aroused his doubts.
Lazarsfeld and others hope to prove that the mass media has a direct and powerful role in shaping people's intentions about how to act in the presidential election. He assumes that the voting decision in the presidential election will be made during the campaign and will be influenced by the news and special reports of the mass media on election issues and candidates. But the research results reveal the opposite fact: many voters in Yili county made up their minds before the election campaign began. Only 54 of the 600 respondents switched from one candidate to another, and only some of these changers did so directly because of the influence of mass media. The media can only inform and convince some key individuals, that is, those who are later called "opinion leaders", and they turn to expand this effect through interpersonal communication with followers, that is, in the two-level communication and circulation mode.
In addition, introducing face-to-face interviews, group experiments and quantitative analysis into communication is also a great contribution of lazarsfeld to the methodology system of communication. Reading People's Choice can not only have a clear understanding of the early development of communication, but also learn many effective research methods from it.
The Structure and Function of Social Communication by harold lasswell
What many of us know about harold lasswell mostly comes from its famous 5W communication mode. In The Structure and Function of Social Communication, lasswell comprehensively expounded the process, structure and function of social communication, and clearly explained the 5W communication mode and the three functional theories of mass communication.
From 65438 to 0948, lasswell published the article "Structure and Function of Social Communication". As soon as the paper came out, it was widely praised and became one of the classic achievements of early communication. Up to now, the academic circles still give high praise to it, thinking that it is a programmatic masterpiece and an independent communication declaration. Even think that all communication studies are like comments on lasswell's thesis, because it involves many basic contents of communication. Generally speaking, the significance of this paper is mainly reflected in two aspects: first, from the internal structure, it analyzes various elements in the communication process; Secondly, from the external function, it summarizes the social function of communication activities.
In this article, lasswell clearly put forward the communication process and its five basic elements, namely: Who? Say what? To whom (who)? Through what channels? What effect has it achieved? This is the famous lasswell 5W model, which is concise and clear, and it is a classic in the communication process model. Later, many scholars revised, supplemented and developed it, but most of them retained its essential characteristics. This model also laid the foundation for five basic contents of communication: control analysis, content analysis, media analysis, audience analysis and effect analysis. These five analyses cover the main fields of communication studies. In addition, it also leads to the concern of communication science about determining the effect.
Another great contribution of this paper is to put forward three basic functions of mass communication and analyze its possible negative functions.
These three functions are: monitoring the environment and coordinating social and cultural inheritance. These three functions are mainly from the perspective of politics; From 65438 to 0959, Charles Wright added the function of "entertainment" from the perspective of sociology. Thus, the classical theory of four functions of mass communication in communication has been formed. Until today, it is still the basic introductory knowledge that communication students must learn. As an information exchange activity in human society, communication has many social functions. Lasswell's exposition provides a basis for fully revealing the function of mass communication. Since then, many scholars have enriched and expanded it from different angles and levels.
In addition to the above-mentioned 5W communication mode and the three functional theories of mass communication, lasswell has made many other contributions in the field of communication. He pioneered the content analysis method and invented the methodology of qualitative and quantitative measurement of communication information; His research on political propaganda and wartime propaganda represents an important type of early communication, and today's propaganda analysis has been incorporated into the general system of communication research; He introduced Freud's psychoanalysis theory into American social sciences and combined it with political analysis, thus applying Freud's theory to individuals at the social level; He also helped to establish policy science, which is an interdisciplinary subject that combines social science knowledge and public behavior. Therefore, although lasswell does not consider himself a communication scholar, there is no doubt that there are many lasswell's thoughts and works in the field of communication research today. Many of his pioneering works have laid the basic scope and level of communication, and he is one of the founders of communication.