1. The structural level of life system is: cell → tissue → organ → system → individual → population → community → ecosystem.

Cell is the basic unit of organism structure and function; The most basic life system on the earth is the cell.

2. Operating steps of the optical microscope: aim at the light → observe with a low-power objective → move the center of the field of view (moving direction) → observe with a high-power objective: ① Only the fine-tuning focus screw can be adjusted; ② Adjust the large aperture and concave mirror.

★3. The fundamental difference between prokaryotic cells and eukaryotic cells is that they have a nucleus bounded by a nuclear-free membrane.

(1) Prokaryote: nuclear-free membrane, chromosome-free, such as Escherichia coli and other bacteria, cyanobacteria.

Eukaryotic cells: There are nuclear membranes and chromosomes, such as yeast and various animals.

Note: the virus has no cell structure, but it has DNA or RNA.

4. Cyanobacteria are prokaryotes and autotrophs.

5. The unity of eukaryotic cells and prokaryotic cells is that they both have cell membrane and cytoplasm.

6. Cell theory was founded by Schleiden and Wang Shi. The establishment of cell theory reveals the unity of cells and biological structure. The establishment of cell theory is a process of exploration, inheritance, revision and development in scientific inquiry, which is full of intriguing twists and turns.

7. The types of chemical elements that make up cells (biological world) and inorganic nature are roughly the same, but their contents are different.

★8. Elements that make up cells

① Macroelements: C, H, O, N, P, S, K, Ca, Mg.

② Trace elements: iron, manganese, boron, zinc, molybdenum and copper.

③ Main elements: carbon, hydrogen, oxygen, nitrogen, phosphorus and sulfur.

④ basic element: c

⑤ In the dry weight of cells, C is the most abundant element, and O is the most abundant element in fresh weight.

★9. In the fresh weight of living things (such as cactus in the desert), the most abundant compound is water, and the most abundant compound in dry weight is protein.

★ 10 and (1) reducing sugars (glucose, fructose and maltose) can react with Feyning reagent to form brick red precipitate; Fat can be dyed orange by Sudan Red No.3 (or red by Sudan Red No.4); Starch (polysaccharide) turns blue when it meets iodine; Protein reacts with biuret reagent to produce purple.

(2) Sugarcane can not be used as the identification material of reducing sugar.

(3) Philin reagent must be used now (unlike biuret reagent, biuret reagent is added with solution A first, and then with solution B).

★ 1 1, the basic unit of protein is amino acid, and the general formula of amino acid structure is NH2-C-COOH, and the difference of various amino acids lies in the difference of R groups.

★ 12, two amino acids dehydrate and condense to form dipeptide, and the chemical bond (-NH-co-) connecting two amino acid molecules is called peptide bond.

★ 13. During dehydration and condensation, the number of water molecules removed = the number of peptide bonds formed = the number of amino acids-the number of peptide chains.

★ 14. The diversity of protein: The types, quantities and arrangement order of amino acids that make up protein are ever-changing, and the folding ways of polypeptide chains are different.

★ 15. Each amino acid molecule contains at least one amino group (-—NH2) and one carboxyl group (-—COOH), and both amino groups and carboxyl groups are connected to the same carbon atom, which is also connected to a hydrogen atom and a side chain gene.

★ 16. The carrier of genetic information is nucleic acid, which plays an extremely important role in biological genetic variation and protein synthesis. There are two types of nucleic acids: one is deoxyribonucleic acid, or DNA abbreviation; One is ribonucleic acid, abbreviated as RNA, which is the basic unit nucleotide of nucleic acid.

17, protein function:

(1) structural proteins, such as muscle, feather, hair and spider silk.

② catalysis, such as most enzymes.

③ Transport carriers, such as hemoglobin.

④ transmitting information, such as insulin.

⑤ Immune function, such as antibody.

18. The combination mode of amino acids is dehydration condensation: the carboxyl group (-—COOH) of one amino acid molecule is connected with the amino group (-—NH2) of another amino acid molecule, and at the same time, one molecule of water is removed.

19, DNA (deoxyribonucleic acid, distribution, nucleus, mitochondria, chloroplast, dye, methyl green, double stranded, base pentose deoxyribose.

ATCG deoxynucleotide stands for organism, prokaryote, eukaryote, phage)

RNA (ribonucleic acid, distribution, cytoplasm, dye, Pyrone red, single strand, base, pentose, ribose AUCG ribonucleotide, representing biological HIV and SARS virus)

★20. Main energy substance: sugar.

A good energy storage substance in cells: fat

Glycogen: Energy Storage of Human and Animal Cells

Direct energy substance: ATP

2 1, sugar:

① Monosaccharide: glucose, fructose, ribose and deoxyribose.

2 disaccharides: maltose, sucrose and lactose.

★ ③ Polysaccharides: starch and cellulose (plant cells) and glycogen (animal cells).

Fat: energy storage; Heat preservation; Buffer area; Reduce pressure

22. Lipid: phospholipid: an important component of biofilm.

cholesterol

Sterol: Sex hormone: promotes the development of human and animal reproductive organs and the formation of germ cells.

Vitamin D: Promote the absorption of calcium and phosphorus in human and animal intestines.

★23. Polysaccharide, protein, nucleic acid, etc. They are all biological macromolecules, and the basic components are monosaccharides, amino acids and nucleotides in turn.

Biological macromolecules take carbon chain as the basic skeleton, so carbon is the core element of life.

Free water (95.5%): a good solvent; Participate in biochemical reactions; Provide a liquid environment; transport

24. Water exists in the form of nutrients and metabolic wastes.

Combined water (4.5%)

★25. Most inorganic salts exist in the form of ions. When Ca2+ in mammalian blood is too low, convulsions will occur. Patients with acute enteritis should be supplemented with glucose saline when dehydrated; Workers who sweat a lot at work under high temperature should drink more light salt water.

26. Cell membranes are mainly composed of lipids, protein and a small amount of sugars. Among lipids, phospholipids are the most abundant, and the more complex the cell membrane, the more kinds and quantities of protein. The basic scaffold of cell membrane is phospholipid bilayer; Cell membrane has certain fluidity and selective permeability.

27, the function of cell membrane

Substances that control the inside and outside of cells

Exchange information between cells.

Isolate cells from the external environment.

28. The cell wall of plant cells is composed of cellulose and pectin, which has the function of support and protection.

★29. Mature mammalian red blood cells are used for cell membrane preparation, because there is no nuclear membrane and organelle membrane.

30.★ Chloroplast: the organelle of photosynthesis; Double coating

★ Mitochondria: the main place for aerobic respiration; Double coating

Ribosome: the organelle that produces protein; Membraneless

Centrosome: related to animal cell mitosis; Membraneless

Vacuole: It regulates osmotic pressure in plant cells and contains cell fluid.

Endoplasmic reticulum: protein processing

Golgi apparatus: protein is processed and secreted.

Secretory proteins such as 3 1, digestive enzymes and antibodies need four kinds of organelles: ribosome, endoplasmic reticulum, Golgi apparatus and mitochondria.

32. Cell membrane, nuclear membrane, organelle membrane and biofilm system of cells are closely related and coordinated in structure and function. Maintain a relatively stable intracellular environment.

Biofilm system is the site of many important chemical reactions.

Separate various organelles to improve the efficiency of life activities.

Nuclear membrane: a bilayer membrane with nuclear pores for mRNA to pass through.

Structure. nucleolus

33. The nucleus is composed of DNA and protein, and the chromosome is the chromatin state of the same substance in different periods.

It is easy to be dyed dark by alkaline dyes.

Function: It is the genetic information base and the control center of cell metabolism and heredity.

★34. The liquid environment in plant cells mainly refers to the cell fluid in vacuoles.

Protoplast refers to cell membrane, vacuole membrane and cytoplasm between the two membranes.

The protoplasm layer of plant cells is equivalent to a semi-permeable membrane; In plasma-wall separation, plasma refers to the protoplasm layer and the wall is the cell wall.

★35. Cell membranes and other biofilms are selectively permeable membranes.

Free diffusion: high concentration→ low concentration, such as H2O, O2, CO2, glycerol, ethanol and benzene.

Auxiliary diffusion: carrier protein assisted, high concentration→ low concentration, such as glucose entering red blood cells.

★36. Transmembrane transport mode actively transports substances: energy is needed; Carrier protein assistance; Low concentration → high concentration, such as inorganic salt ions.

Endocytosis and exocytosis: Macromolecules, such as carrier proteins.

★37. Biofilms such as cell membranes are selectively permeable membranes, allowing water molecules to pass freely, some ions and small molecules can pass, and other ions, small molecules and macromolecules cannot pass.

-

38. Essence: Most of the organic substances produced by living cells are protein, and a few are RNA.

high efficiency

Characteristic specificity: each enzyme can only catalyze one chemical reaction.

The conditions of enzyme action are mild: under suitable temperature and pH value, the enzyme activity is the highest at the optimum temperature (pH value), and the enzyme activity will be obviously reduced or even inactivated (too high, too acidic, too alkaline) if the temperature and pH value are too high or too low.

Function: Catalyze and reduce the activation energy required for chemical reaction.

Structural formula: a-p ~ p ~ p, a stands for adenosine, p stands for phosphate group and ~ stands for high-energy phosphate bond.

Full name: adenosine triphosphate

★39、ATP

Mutual transformation with ADP: a-p ~ p ~ pa-p ~ p+pi+ energy

Function: intracellular direct energy substance

40. Cell respiration: The process that organic matter undergoes a series of oxidative decomposition in cells to generate CO2 or other products, release energy and generate ATP.

Mitochondrial structure is shown in the figure:

★4 1. Comparison between aerobic respiration and anaerobic respiration

Aerobic breathing. Location. Cytoplasmic matrix, mitochondria (main)

Products carbon dioxide, H2O, energy

The energy of the reaction formula C6H 12O6+6O26CO2+6H2O+

Abundant energy

Anaerobic breathing. Location. Cytoplasmic matrix.

Product carbon dioxide, alcohol (or lactic acid), energy

Energy of reaction formula C6H 12O62C3H6O3+

Small amount of energy

Aerobic breathing process

The first stage: 1 molecule of glucose is decomposed into 2 molecules of pyruvate and a small amount of [H], and a small amount of energy is released.

The second stage: Pyruvate and water are completely decomposed into CO2 and [H], releasing a small amount of energy and mitochondrial matrix.

The third stage: [H] and O2 combine to form water, a lot of energy, mitochondrial inner membrane.

Anaerobic respiration process

The first stage: aerobic respiration

The second stage: Pyruvate is decomposed into ethanol and CO2 or into lactic acid under the catalysis of different enzymes.

The main energy source of high-energy phosphate bond of ATP molecule

42, the application of cell respiration:

Bandage the wound and use breathable disinfection gauze to inhibit aerobic respiration of bacteria.

Yeast brewing: ventilation and sealing. Firstly, the fermentation bacteria are allowed to breathe aerobically and multiply in large quantities, and then the anaerobic respiration produces alcohol.

Pots often loosen the soil: promote aerobic respiration at the roots and absorb inorganic salts.

Regular drainage of paddy fields: inhibit the production of alcohol by anaerobic respiration and prevent alcoholism and root rot.

Advocate jogging: prevent strenuous exercise and anaerobic respiration of muscle cells from producing lactic acid.

Tetanus infection wound: the wound must be cleaned in time to prevent anaerobic breathing.

★43. The ultimate source of energy needed by living cells is solar energy; The total energy flowing into the ecosystem is the solar energy fixed by the producer.

44. Chlorophyll A Chlorophyll mainly absorbs red light and blue-violet light.

Chlorophyll b in chloroplasts

Carotene (thylakoid membrane)

Carotenoids mainly absorb blue-purple light.

xanthophyll

45, photosynthesis refers to the green plants through chloroplasts, using light energy, CO2 and H2O into energy storage organic matter, and release the process of O2.

Chloroplast structure is shown in the figure:

46、

In the middle of 18C, it is considered that plants are only composed of water in soil, regardless of air.

177 1 year, the priestley experiment in Britain confirmed that plant growth can refresh the air, but no light was found.

1779, Ingelhaus, the Netherlands, did many experiments to verify that only green leaves can refresh the air under sunlight, but the composition of the released gas is unknown.

In 1785, it is obvious that O2 is released and CO2 is absorbed.

1845, Meyer, Germany discovered that light energy was converted into chemical energy.

1864, Saks confirmed that besides O2, there is starch as the product of photosynthesis.

1939 Rubin Carmen of the United States used isotope labeling to prove that O2 released by photosynthesis came from water.

★47、

Conditions: Light is definitely needed.

Location of photoreaction stage: thylakoid membrane,

Products: [H], oxygen and energy.

Process: (1) Water is decomposed into [H] and O2 under light energy;

(2)ADP+Pi+ light ATP

Conditions: light or no light is ok.

Dark reaction stage position: chloroplast matrix

Products: sugars and other organic compounds and five-carbon compounds.

Process: (1)CO2 fixation: 1 molecule C5 and CO2 generate 2 molecules C3.

(2) Reduction of C3: Under the action of [H] and ATP, part of C3 is reduced to carbohydrate, and part of C3 forms C5.

Connection: there are differences and close connections between the bright reaction stage and the dark reaction stage, which are indispensable whole. Photoreaction provides [H] and ATP for dark reaction.

48. The concentration of CO2 in the air, the water content in the soil, the length and intensity of light, the composition of light and temperature are all external factors that affect the intensity of photosynthesis: appropriately extending light and increasing the concentration of CO2 can increase the yield.

49. Autotrophic organisms: Inorganic substances such as CO2 and H2O can synthesize organic substances such as glucose, such as green plants and nitrifying bacteria (chemical synthesis).

Heterotrophs: We can't synthesize inorganic substances such as carbon dioxide and H2O into organic substances such as glucose. We can only use ready-made organic substances in the environment?

50. The relationship between cell surface area and volume restricts cell growth, and cell proliferation is the basis of organism growth, development and reproductive inheritance.

Mitosis: somatic cell proliferation

5 1, meiosis of eukaryotic cell division mode: proliferation of germ cells (sperm, egg cells).

★ amitosis: red blood cells of frogs. Spinning and chromosomes do not change during division.

★52. Division: DNA molecular replication and protein synthesis are completed, but the number of chromosomes does not increase, but the DNA doubles.

Early stage: the nucleoli of nuclear membrane gradually disappeared, spindle and chromosome appeared, and the chromosome arrangement was disordered.

Mitotic metaphase: Chromosome centromeres are arranged on the equatorial plate, and the chromosome morphology is relatively stable, and the number is clearer and easier to observe than that in metaphase.

Late stage: centromere division, sister chromatid separation, chromosome number doubled.

At the end stage: the nuclear membrane and nucleolus reappear, and the spindle and chromosome gradually disappear.

★53. Differences in mitosis between animal cells and plant cells

Plant cell

interface

DNA replication, protein synthesis (chromosome replication)

earlier stage

Spinning takes place at the two poles of the cell, forming a spinning body.

final stage

Cell plates formed at the equatorial plate spread around to form cell walls.

Animal cell

interface

Chromosome replication, centriole also doubled.

earlier stage

The centrosome emits star light, forming a rotating body.

final stage

No cell plate was formed, and the cells were sunken inward from the center and divided into two daughter cells.

★54. Characteristics and significance of mitosis: The chromosomes of the mother cell are copied (essentially after DNA replication) and accurately and evenly distributed in the two daughter cells, thus maintaining the stability of genetic traits between parents and offspring, which is of great significance to biological inheritance.

55, mitosis, chromosome and DNA number changes.

56. Cell differentiation: A process in which the stability of offspring in morphology, structure and physiological functions is different due to the proliferation of one or a type of cells during individual development. It is a permanent change and the foundation of organism development, which makes the cells in multicellular organisms tend to be specialized and is conducive to improving the efficiency of various physiological functions.

★57. Examples of cell differentiation: Red blood cells and muscle cells have exactly the same genetic information (the same fertilized egg is formed by mitosis); The failure of morphology and function is due to the different ways in which genetic information is executed in different cells.

★58. Cell totipotency: It means that differentiated cells still have the potential to develop into complete individuals.

Highly differentiated plant cells are totipotent, such as plant tissue culture. Because cells (nuclei) have the genetic information needed for the growth and development of organisms, the nuclei of highly differentiated animals are totipotent, such as cloned sheep.

59, the intracellular water content decreases and the metabolic rate slows down.

Decreased intracellular enzyme activity

Characteristics of cell senescence: intracellular pigment accumulation

Intracellular respiration rate decreased and nuclear volume increased.

The permeability of cell membrane decreases, and the transport function of substances decreases.

60. Apoptosis refers to the process that cells automatically end their lives, which is determined by genes. It is a normal natural physiological process, such as the disappearance of tadpole tail. It plays a key role in the normal development of multicellular organisms, maintaining the stability of the internal environment and resisting the interference of external factors.

Can proliferate indefinitely.

★6 1, the characteristic morphological structure of cancer cells has changed significantly.

The glycoprotein on the surface of cancer cells is reduced, which is easy to spread and transfer in the body.

62. Cancer prevention and treatment: stay away from carcinogenic factors and conduct ct, nuclear magnetic resonance and oncogene detection; Surgical resection, chemotherapy and radiotherapy can also be performed.